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By Tailoka F.

Various metallurgical residues from iron and steel making processes have been treated by chlorination in excess air with hydrogen chloride gas generated from the combustion of scrap polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The residues include dust from both the electric arc and blast &maces, hydrocyclone overflow, zinc - lead blast furnace slags and dust rich in zinc and copper from copper refining. Chlorination is achieved either directly by mixing the residues with scrap PVC or indirectly in a two furnace system. In the latter, scrap PVC is combusted between 523 and 573 K in a horizontal furnace and the resulting gases are then reacted with metallurgical residues in a vertical furnace at 1166 to 1329 K. Gas chromatography, thermogravimetric measurements, XRD and AAS have been utilised to study the reactions. The recovery of non ferrous metals is as high as 80 to 90 % and only a negligible amount of iron is carried over. The optimum temperature for combustion is between 518 and 573 K. Above 600 K, the evolution of HCI is so fast that sufficient chlorination is not achieved. Analysis showed that no dioxins were present in the gases, the residues or the chlorides.

Jan 1, 1997

By Yuanbing Ling

Keywords: Calcium sulfate, Sulfuric acid, Phase transformations, Thermodynamic analysis As part of a boarder research project, seeking the development of a cost-effective process for direct production of the high value material, -calcium sulfate hemihydrate, from sulfuric acid at atmospheric as opposed to elevated pressure conditions, the fundamental work presented here has been undertaken. This includes experimental monitoring of phase transformation reactions and thermodynamic analysis of the relationships among the various phases, namely, calcium sulfate dihydrate, hemihydrate and anhydrite in aqueous sulfuric acid solution at temperatures ranging from 20oC to boiling point.

Jan 1, 2004

By Thomas E. P. Wechsler

The limiting factor for most pyro-metallurgical processes in secondary cop- per melting is the time required to heat and melt the product. American Combustion's proprietary PYRETRON variable £uel/air/oxygen combustion system improves the throughput of existing scrap melting and heating furnaces for copper and copper alloy production by increasing the rate of heat transfer from the flame to the product. The increased productivity and energy savings obtained from this technology can result in sizable reductions in operating costs for smelting operations.

Jan 1, 1991

By R. Craig McClung

Contrary to other sulfide minerals, where recovery is principally liberation controlled, the recovery of molybdenite is more complex. It is this complexity that initiated a geometallurgical investigation of molybdenites from Bingham Canyon. The aim of this investigation was to determine the effect mineralogy and/or mineralogical attributes have on recovery. All samples were analyzed using normal mineralogical techniques. The results reveal the presence of two distinctly different types of molybdenite. These have been identified as the two polytypes of molybdenite: i.e. hexagonal (2H); and rhombohedral (3R). The 2H-polytype occurs as textbook-shaped particles in quartz-molybdenite veins that are located in the current pit bottom. The 3R-polytype occurs as disseminated, “ball”-shaped particles with a dull or frosted appearance and are concentrated along the margins of the current pit. Concerning their metallurgical behavior, each type exhibits unique metallurgical properties that are consistent with those reported in the published literature. The 2H-polytype is easily ground and kinetically “faster” floating with surface attributes that are amenable to higher rates of recovery. This results in the production of a high quality concentrate under normal operating conditions. The 3R-polytype, by comparison, is difficult to grind and kinetically “slower” floating with surface attributes that are less amenable to recovery. Therefore, in deposits with higher concentrations of the 3R-polytype, modifications to the normal operating parameters may be necessary to improve recovery. This investigation highlights the necessity for understanding the mineralogical characteristics of any economic mineral(s), as these will have a direct impact on recovery.

By K. Alibhai

Greek laterites, which generally had nickel concentrations of < 1 %, are amenable to chemical leaching,. although there is considerable variability in the ease of leaching with different ore types. With low grade ores(< 1 % Ni content); >70% of the nickel was leached in columns with a strong selectivity for nickel over iron. Heterotrophic microbially assisted leaching could be a viable alternative to classical hydrometallurgical and/or pyrometallurgical techniques, with a very high recovery (greater than 80% ) being found with some of these mineral microbial interactions. Critic acid was probably the effective chelating agent.

Jan 1, 1991

By Meifeng Zhi

Separation of uranium and molybdenum in the alkaline leach solution of a U–Mo ore was studied. A process of acidification-solvent extraction-precipitation uranium and molybdenum was determined. The influences of solution acidity and phase ratio of acidic scrubbing on separation of uranium and molybdenum were examined. The molybdenum extraction equilibrium isotherm was drawn. The results show that the separation of molybdenum and uranium can be achieved by acidifying the alkaline leach solution, solvent extracting molybdenum using trialkylamine at equilibrium pH 2.5, and scrubbing the loaded organic phase using sulfuric acid solution. The strip solution can directly precipitate ammonium molybdate. Uranium can be directly precipitated from the raffinat

By M. B. Sizgoric

Quantitative mineralogy is used in a study done on an Inco Metals Company nickel sulfide occurrence from &apos;the Thompson area in Northern Manitoba. The study included: a) determination of the variations in chemical composition of the ore minerals; b) determination of the liberation of the ore minerals for the various types of ore and for different feed grinds; c) assessment of the preliminary mill test results by comparing the mineral distribution in the different tailings. Preliminary mill test results had outlined three main problem areas: 1) unacceptabiy low grade concentrate with, 2) very high weight recovery and, 3) low pyrrhotite rejection resulting in a high sulfur concentrate. The mineralogical study readily explained these results by showing that: 1) between 20 and 40% of the nickel in the feeds and 55 and 75% of the nickel lost in the tailings is associated with pyrrhotite. This accounts in part for the low grade of the concentrates obtained at high recoveries: 2) hexagonal nonmagnetic pyrrhotite constitutes over 90 percent of pyrrhotite. Since hexagonal pyrrhotite floats more readily than monoclinic pyrrhotite, this could be part of the reason for the undesirable high pyrrhotite recoveries into the concentrates. Further test work to establish both the optimal grind and the best conditions for pyrrhotite rejection is therefore mandatory.

Jan 1, 1981

By U. Meyer, A. Alonso, P. Banios

The sampling of cathodes has changed with the introduction of the ISA-process in copper refineries. A Jernkontoret joint working group of refineries and rod plants from both primary and recycled copper plants has been investigating whether the actual sampling of cathodes is representative for this type of cathodes. As a first stage, samples were sent to the members of the working group with the objective to find an easy basis for a comparison of the results of the next stages. All samples show the same tendency for nearly all elements. In some cases, there may exist differences in calibration and for some elements the detection limits are too high, especially when Optical Spectrometry is used. In the second stage, discs were compared with melted samples to answer the question whether the punching of discs is sufficient for the quality control of the cathode. The analyses of the discs represent fairly well the cathode quality. There are differences between cathodes from different crops. Three punches are sufficient to determine the cathode quality. Finally, samples from various lots of cathodes were compared with samples from the rod produced from these cathodes. The impurity content of the rod corresponds to the impurity content of the cathode.

Jan 1, 2000

By F. E. Pawlek

Copper concentrates can be comminuted in an attritor within a very short time to a particle size of 1 - 0.1 um. Addition of sodium hydroxide enhances commninution. The concentrates, suspended only in water, can be completely dissolved under oxygen over pressure and temperatures ranging from 120 - 180°C (248 - 356°F), because the surface area of the concentrate has been significantly increased by the ultra fine grinding. Addi¬tion of a small amount of silver ions to leach liquor containing sulfuric acid acted as a catalyst for the dissolution of chalcopyrite, because of the formation of local elements on the surface. The addition of C1- ions was also catalytically very effective. With this method it is possible to completely dissolve the copper contained in chalcopyrite concentrates after ultra fine grinding within 30 min at 110°C (230°F) under an oxygen partial pressure of 1 atm (14 psig). Several flowsheets demonstrate the industrial feasibility.

Jan 1, 1976

By Laurent Cohen

Since the 1970s, Solvent Extraction (SX) in hydrometallurgical processes has been a key enabling technology in the production of high-purity metals. Examples include copper, rare earth oxides, uranium, cobalt and nickel. Notwithstanding incremental improvements in extractant formulations, few breakthroughs can be recounted in this industry outside of the initial amine-, oxime- or phosphine-based reagent chemistries. However, the advent of lithium-ion batteries and their stringent requirements for critical materials (lithium, cobalt and nickel) offer new challenges and opportunities for SX. Solvay recently introduced a new extractant for lithium, CYANEX® 936, and developed unique modeling software capabilities in cobalt/nickel separation using CYANEX® 272, zinc SX using DEHPA® and rare earth separations using CYANEX® 572. This paper discusses trends in SX and provides insight on processing of critical materials essential to energy sources. It also summarizes the technical and economic benefits based on extractant selection and advances in modeling.

By O. Norman Lotter

There are many scales of innovation in the pursuit of concentrator performance improvement, including paradigm change, inventive change and incremental change. All are important, but the last is low risk, low cost and has a relatively high probability of success, given the right metallurgical skills. Seeking continuous improvement is also essential to ensure that performance does not decline over time due to ore type changes, personnel changes, equipment wear and other factors. When properly implemented, these small gains offer a very high rate of return for the project cost because they are made from marginal, not total, operating costs of the plant. To be effective this approach requires plant trials that use designed structure and appropriate statistics to test the observed differences arising from the old and new process treatments, be they a change in flotation reagent, in grind, pulp density, etc. However the pursuit of small but financially significant performance gains is often regarded as fruitless because of the range of variance in plant data, and the consequent difficulty of ‘proving’ that a benefit has been achieved. Opportunity for improvement is thus sometimes relegated to the realm of the impossible, or at best, treated with skepticism. Operations managers prefer to look for the larger gains, which are easier to demonstrate and prove. Unfortunately, these are seldom to be found; rather, a large gain can be more easily made by executing a series of small recovery improvements that are together equivalent to the ephemeral single large gain. In this paper we advocate a policy of continuing improvement driven by rigorous performance testing protocols and a formal ‘risk analysis’ approach to judging the efficacy of changes implemented in the plant. Following these simple procedures allows rational decisions to be made on the basis of quantifying risk and reward. In particular we consider the choice of hurdle rate for decision-making which best balances risk and reward. It is shown through case studies from actual industrial practice that this approach is practical and delivers significant financial value to the operation.

By Ph. Cauwe

This paper presents the experience that NESA and MECHIM have gained about recovery of non ferrous and precious metals from complex sulfide materials. Processed materials are from natural deposits or metallurgical by-products or residues. Roasting of these materials is closely related to the pyro or hydrometallurgical processes used downstream of the roasting. Conditions of a first step of roasting the SELECTIVE ROASTING, are analyzed and explained. The roasted products so obtained are characterised by an extended elimination of volatile sulfides (AS, Bi, Sb, Sn, Pb, Hg, ?? ) and are readily available for the pyrometallurgical recovery of non ferrous and precious metals. After the SELECTIVE ROASTING, thanks to. the high porosity obtained in the "selective calcine", the SULFATE ROASTING is per-formed in excellent conditions. Hydrometallurgical tests performed for the final calcine show a high recovery of non ferrous and precious? metals and require only simple and well known processes. Many experimental and commercial data are given.

Jan 1, 1983

By Hongfa Hu, Stavros A. Argyropoulos, Stephan Ferenczy

"Physical as well as mathematical modeling was carried out to investigate the exothermic mass transfer in liquid metal systems. In these systems, the exothermicity induces unique heat, mass and momentum transfer phenomena. Moreover, these phenomena are deeply coupled and they are further complicated by the presence of a moving boundary.In the physical model used, ice cylinders were immersed into sulfuric acid solutions, because the intermixing of ice with sulfuric acid is very exothermic. In this low temperature system, velocity and temperature measurements in the sulfuric acid were made as well as measurements of the ice melting in the sulfuric acid.The mathematical model developed solved simultaneously the heat, mass and momentum equations numerically, utilizing the control-volume finite difference approach. The enthalpy method was adopted to track the moving boundary. Predictions made by the mathematical model were in close agreement with the results obtained by the physical model.The results from the mathematical model were further validated with experiments involving high temperature liquid metals. Specifically, data were obtained in an experimental setup involving (a) dipping silicon cylinders into high carbon liquid iron and (b) dipping nickel cylinders into liquid aluminum. Results from these experimental studies supported the predictions of the mathematical model."

Jan 1, 1999

By William A. Hockings

This report describes the results of laboratory studies on leaching of copper ores.tlf These studies are the first step of a program for the investigation of in situ leaching of tabular, metalliferous ore bodies.(2) The basic steps required in the development of an in situ process are: 1. Leachability - the ability to dissolve the metal values from the ore under in situ conditions must be demonstrated. 2. Ore Preparation - the ore must be prepared so that sufficient contact with the solution can be attained. 3. System Design - integrated in situ systems must be designed and studied for engineering feasibility. 4. Economic Feasibility - the economics of the system must be shown to be economically feasible and competitive. 5. Environmental Feasibility - the loss of reagents into the environment must be investigated. 6. Pilot Scale Testing - the feasibility of the system must be demonstrated on a sufficiently large scale. The studies described in this report were concerned only with the first step of the program, viz., leachability. Native and sulfide copper ores from the Michigan copper district were selected as model ores for these studies. Aqueous amnonia solutions were chosen as the solvents to be investigated. In this study carbonate (CO3, HCO3, H2CO3) was used exclusively as the anion. In keeping with custom it is referred to as carbon dioxide and concentrations are ex- pressed in terms of CO2. When leaching native copper the reaction is

Jan 1, 1976

By R. J. Wesely

The paper describes the various methods which are currently being used or considered to refine gold and silver. These methods are then compared on a technical and economic basis. Conclusions are drawn on the factors which might influence the choice of process for different feed stocks and economic constraints

Jan 1, 1990

By Lucas Barbosa de Souza Martins, Felipe Perissé Duarte Lopes, Nathalia Carneiro Garcia Rosa, Lucas Lopes da Costa, Sergio Neves Monteiro, Rubén Jesus Sanchez Rodriguez

"The fibers extracted from the stem of the banana plant are relatively stronger and have been used as reinforcement of polymer matrix composites. In addition to quasi-static mechanical properties, there is a need to characterize the dynamic behavior of banana fiber composites subjected to thermal and mechanical constraints. In this work, the temperature variation of the dynamicmechanical parameters of polyester composites incorporated with up 30% in volume of banana fibers were investigated by DMA tests. The storage and loss moduli as well as the tangent delta were measured from 20 to 200°C in a TA Instrument operated with the flexural mode at 1 Hz. The results showed that the incorporation of banana fibers tends to increase the viscoelastic stiffness of the polyester matrix. It was also observed changes in the T g and the structure dumping capacity of the composites with increasing fraction of banana fibers.IntroductionNatural fibers with high amount of cellulose, also known as lignocellulosic fibers, have been used from primeval times by our civilization. In the last century, synthetic fibers such as nylon, carbon, aramid and glass fibers gained interest owing to superior strength and precise dimensional control. Natural fibers were then replaced by synthetics in many fields such as textiles and appliances. In the past decades, however, environmental issues drawn, once again, the attention to lignocellulosic fibers as possible substitute for intensive energy-consuming and long term polluting synthetics, specially the glass fiber [1]. In particular, research works have disclosed the potential advantages associated with the use of lignocellulosic fibers as the reinforcing phase in polymer composites [2-7]. Among the advantages it is worth mentioning the renewability, recyclability, biodegradability and the fact that natural fibers are neutral with respect to C02 emissions responsible for global warming. Moreover, as compared to synthetics, lignocellulosic fibers present lower density and cost as well as reduced wear caused to the processing equipment. On the other hand, in terms of composite reinforcement, hydrophilic lignocellulosic fibers present drawbacks such as weak adhesion to hydrophobic polymeric matrices in addition to dimensional limitations and non-uniform properties."

Jan 1, 2011

By Frederico Muylaert Margem, Jarbas Bravo Neto, Sergio Neves Monteiro

"The mechanical behavior and the fracture characteristics of composites with DGEBA/TETA epoxy matrix reinforced with up to 40% in volume of continuous and thinner ramie fibers were evaluated by tensile tests. Specimens with selected thin fibers aligned along the tensile axis were room temperature tested to rupture. The fracture surface was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. The results showed significant increase in both the ultimate tensile strength and the elastic modulus. The fracture analysis indicated the possible mechanism for the fiber/matrix interaction, which could be responsible for the composite performance.IntroductionThe fiber reinforced polymer composite emerged in the middle of last century as a versatile engineering material for applications requiring mechanical resistance in association with lightness. Its most commonly used example is ""fiberglass'', i.e., a thermoset polymer matrix composite reinforced with glass fiber. Indeed, ""fiberglass"" has a specific strength of the order of 500 MPa.cm3/g, which is the double of the strongest steels like the maraging. This motivated, at earlier times, ""fiberglass"" to replace many conventional materials including wood and natural fiber composites. Today, ""fiberglass"" has a wide range of uses from aerospace systems and appliances to sport and leisure components. However, its fabrication as well as those of any synthetic fiber such as carbon and aramid composites, requires a relatively large amount of energy. Presently, a growing concern exists regarding the consequences to the environmental by gases like C02 associated with both the energy consumption and the processing of synthetic fibers and their composites. These gases are well known responsible for global warming [1]."

Jan 1, 2011

By Jürgen Antrekowitsch, Thomas Griessacher

"Heavy metal containing residues are typically hazardous wastes because on the one hand, a deposition gets more and more complicated and on the other hand, the large amounts of metals like Zn, Cu, Fe and Pb represent a significant value. Thus, a post-treatment of these materials with the recovery/recycling of the metals and stabilization of the waste is not only ecological but often also economical. The therefore typically applied recycling processes utilize pyrometallurgical steps, where carbon or carbon monoxide from fossil coal and coke is used as a reducing agent, which results in large amounts of CO2 emissions. An alternative option is the application of a hydrogen-rich gas emitted in biomass utilization processes as a carbon-neutral reducing agent. Investigations in a retort process which were done at different temperatures and times showed excellent results concerning the achievable reduction rates and final contents of the heavy metals for various residues.IntroductionNowadays heavy metal containing residues like electric arc furnace dust (EAFD), dust from cupola furnaces, waelz slag, etc. are declared as hazardous wastes in a growing number of countries due to the leachability of the heavy metals in these residues. For that reason it is no longer possible to landfill these materials or use them for road construction or disposal works. Some land filling activities, carried out until now, have only been realizable because of some process modifications or cost intensive post-treatment steps of these residues. But the disposal capacities for such materials are decreasing, therefore increasing the prices. The second point for the growing disposal limitations is the stringent environmental legislations and regulations, which restrict the number and amounts of materials which can be dumped [1 – 5].From the other point of view these heavy metal containing residues usually have high contents of zinc, lead, iron, etc., which represent a significant value and therefore a big potential to recover these metals. This is why in recent years the number of recycling processes and the amount of recycled heavy metal containing residues have continuously increased. These recycling processes have the target to recover the valuable metals from the residual materials in the form of a saleable product as well as the stabilization of the slag produced in these processes [5, 6]."

Jan 1, 2011

By Alice Barreto Bevitori, Felipe Perissé Duarte Lopes, Denise Cristina Oliveira Nascimento, Sergio Neves Monteiro, Isabela Leão Amaral da Silva

"The piassava fiber is one of the most rigid natural lignocellulosic fibers, which has since the last decade been investigated as possible reinforcement for polymeric composites. In the present work, the tensile properties of polyester composites reinforced with piassava fibers with thinner diameters were investigated. Composites with volume fractions up to 30% of continuous and aligned piassava fibers were tensile tested at room temperature to evaluate the ultimate strength, elastic modulus and total strain. For each volume fraction, individually separated fibers with the smaller diameters were tested. The results indicated that the tensile properties tend to improve with increasing volume fraction of the thinner piassava fibers. The role played by the fiber/matrix interaction was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy.IntroductionA significant change in the transportation sectors mainly the aerospace and automotive, occurred last century with the introduction of stronger and lighter materials. The most relevant example was the polymer composite reinforced with synthetic fiber. They are nowadays replacing conventional materials such as the aluminum alloys in airplane body owing to superior specific strength. in recent years, however, environmental problems in a global scale are imposing a reversion in the use of synthetic fiber specially the glass fiber. In spite of its higher specific strength, this fiber and its polymer composites can neither be recycled nor incinerated in a thermal plant to generate electricity [1]. Moreover, the fabrication, processing and transportation of a glass fiber composite are associated with C02emission, the major responsible for global warming [2].A possible substitute for glass fiber without the above-mentioned environmental problems, could be a natural fiber. In fact, natural fibers obtained from cellulose-rich plants, also called lignocellulosic fiber, are already being used in several engineering fields, particularly the automobile industry [3-6]. Figure 1 illustrates an automobile and its many components made of lignocellulosic fiber composite [7]."

Jan 1, 2011

By N. El-Kaddah, J. W. McKelliget

"A mathematical model for the analysis and design of hybrid plasma reactors for advanced materials synthesis is presented. The model is based upon a solution of the electromagnetic vector potential equation and is capable of predicting the two-dimensional velocity, temperature, and electromagnetic fields as well as the reaction kinetics inside the reactor for any axi-symmetric coil configuration. The model is used as a computer aided design tool for the design of hybrid plasma reactors consisting of a conventional DC torch augmented by an RF induction coil and it is demonstrated that the hybrid system possesses superior characteristics for materials synthesis over conventional DC or RF systems. The coupling between the RF and DC components is found to affect both the temperature field and the flow field and to have a significant effect on the reaction kinetics and on materials recovery. The model is used to study the thermal decomposition of silicon tetrachloride as a function of reactor design and operating parameters and it is demonstrated that through a CAD approach it is possible to significantly improve the operation of materials synthesis systems.IntroductionIn recent years there has been growing interest in the use of the inductively coupled plasma for chemical synthesis as a way of meeting the increasing demand for high quality, high performance materials for use in critical applications/l/. Although the basic feasibility of this approach has been demonstrated in the laboratory/2,3/ there still exists a number of operational problems that adversely affect system performance for some applications. In particular, the recirculation and back flow effects that arise from the electromagnetic forces in the plasma can result in the repulsion of the reactants from the hot plasma core and their subsequent deposition on the walls of the reactor. Another operational problem arises from the fact that the energy dissipated in the plasma has to compensate for the heat losses to the environment by conduction, convection, and radiation in order to maintain the ionization of the plasma and, hence, the stability of the plasma may be affected by the presence of the reactants and their products."

Jan 1, 1988