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By HOWARD RICHARDS

THE dollar was, selected as the unit of currency by the Congress of the United States of America on Apr. 2, 1792. This "Dollar" currency is so much more convenient than the older British currency that the Canadian Government, among others, has adopted it with corresponding success. Just as the dollar is the unit of United States currency, so the meter is the international unit for measuring length. The various weights and measures used in - the United States have since Apr. 5,. 1893, been based on the metric standards. These fundamental standards are kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which is supported by the United States, Great Britain and the, other leading countries. of the world. Copies are held-in Washington and other capitals. (2) As the dollar is divided into 100 cents, so the meter, which is 10 per cent. longer than the yard, is divided into 100 centimeters or cm. And as the cent is divided into 10 mills, so the centimeter is divided into 10 millimeters or mm. In measuring clothing and other articles which do not require great accuracy, the centimeter is most con¬venient, so that such work is done in terms of centi¬meters.. Instead of speaking of a 15;2-in. collar, a 40-centimeter or 40-cm. collar is referred to. Where accuracy is needed, as in mechanical drawing, machineshop work, etc., millimeters are employed. Thus 8 mm., is the convenient equivalent for 5/16 inch.

Jan 1, 1921

'T. C. MERRIMAN, New Haven, Conn. (written discussion *).-This most interesting paper gives much carefully obtained and valuable data. However, there are two points in connection with the commercial application of such data that might possibly be a source of trouble and mis-understanding. In the first place, the examination of thin sections of annealed brass, subjected to standard Brinell test.(500 kg. on a 10-mm. diameter ball) at thicknesses from 0.075 to 0.150 in. (1.9 to 3.8 mm.) indicates that cold work has been performed on the specimen during the application of the load sufficient to extend way through the section, and have the hardness of the metal affected by the backing. If the usual steel support is used, this effect is very evident. If a piece of soft brass is used as a support, there is an indentation in the surface of the support accompanied by a bulge on the under side of the tested specimen opposite the impression made by the 10-mm. ball. The result is that Brinell specifications (governmental or otherwise) on stock for a certain purpose may not be fair in all cases, since manufacturers, owing to differences in equipment, etc., may not all use precisely the thickness and conditions of stock on which the Brinell specifications were based. This would mean that the government Brinell specification might not give them the temper of stock best suited for their manufacturing methods. The concluding paragraph of this paper, stating that "the hardness of cartridge brass may be determined with greater accuracy by the Brinell hardness measurement than by attempting to judge it from the grain size" appears to be in line with the movement of the last year or so among brass manufacturers toward substitution of the Brinell test for microscopic examination as an acceptance test on cartridge brass. The statement may he strictly true that the Brinell test is the best test for hardness, but it is not, as the statement might readily be construed, a sufficient test of suitable condition. For instance, some cartridge brass might accidentally have been overheated to a point where it would be distinctly unsafe to use for the manufacture of small arms cases and then be so rolled (reduction 3 to 5 per cent.) as to pass perfectly proper Brinell specifications. Under such conditions the microscope would reveal its unsuitability where the Brinell test had failed so to do.

Jan 4, 1919

By F. N. Flynn

- Introductory IN 1882, The Arizona Copper Co. Ltd., acquired producing copper mines at Metcalf and Morenci (locally called Longfellow). Metcalf is situated a distance of 7 miles, and Morenci a distance of 6 miles from the general office of the company at Clifton, Ariz. A reduction works with five blast furnaces was built in the center of the town of Clifton in 1884 and operated until January, 1914. Concentration of oxidized ores was begun in 1890-1891, in a mill built adjoining the smelter, and in October, 1893, a leaching process was started for treating tailings from the oxide mill. A sulphide concentrator with 300 tons capacity was built at Clifton and started treating chalcocite ores in July, 1896. This was the first mill to treat low-grade copper-sulphide ores successfully. Another concentration mill for sulphide ores was erected at Morenci in 1900. The, sulphide mills are now being remodeled to treat ores by concentration and flotation, with a capacity of 4,000 tons at Morenci and 500 tons at Clifton. The leaching plant has not been running since September, 1914. The average yearly production from this company's mines and reduction works from 1885 to date has been: Pounds 10 years ended 1894 6,864,902 10 years ended 1904 20,439,614 10 years ended 1914 : 32,665,905 Part of year 1915, to Sept. 12 30,206,106 4 months of 1916, to June 15,964,840 June, 1916...: ? 4,900,000 Construction on a new smelting plant was started in February, 1912, and finished in February, 1914. In the Transactions, vol. 49, E. Horton Jones published "Unit Construction Costs from the New Smelter of the Arizona Copper Co., Ltd:," which fully describes the construction of this plant, with details of costs.

Jan 9, 1916

By A. W. Gauger

SMELTING of iron ore, manufacture of steel, and the fabrication of ferrous metal products are all processes that require energy. Charcoal was adequate, to supply this energy for the relatively simple processes of the early iron-masters. In the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, anthracite and bituminous coal and later coke supplanted charcoal for the smelting of iron. So far as the chemical phases of the process were concerned, charcoal was an ideal iron-furnace fuel. It had practically no sulphur, and its ash, besides being low in quantity, consisted chiefly of lime and alkalies, thus supplying a part of the flux required for smelting the ore. The ash of coal and coke on the other hand, being largely silica, had itself to be fluxed with bases added to the charge. Physically, however, coke proved to have many advantages over charcoal, which could not be used in the furnaces of today. The chief reason, however, for the change from charcoal to coke was the impossibility of maintaining an adequate wood supply.

Jan 1, 1941

By A. Lubinski, C. R. Stewart, K. A. Blenkarn

Storage porosity has been considered one of the important pore geometry characteristics of heterogeneous-porosity limestones. Storage pores are only containers for fluids, in contrast to flow channel pores which both contain fluids and provide continuity for fluid flow. The concept of another geometry characteristic, "poro-striction", is presented as a second pertinent variable in describing limestone pore space. In simple terms, poro-striction is a measure of the flow resistance between storage and flow channel pores. Alternating-flow core-testing theory provides flow relationships which can be used to divide the pore space of heterogeneous-porosity media into flow channel and storage pores and to measure the "porostriction" of the latter. Experimental application of this theory to naturally occurring heterogeneous limestones shows that "porostriction" and the ratio of storage to flow channel pores can be estimated. Porostriction and porosity ratio are microscopic characteristics which should influence oil-recovery efficiencies during certain types of displacement processes. A knowledge of pore geometry should be valuable in designing or selecting the most effective oil-recovery process for heterogeneous limestones containing storage porosity. INTRODUCTION The primary and secondary recovery of oil from limestone (carbonate) reservoirs has been and will continue to be a major source of the world's supply of petroleum. Oil recovery from this type of formation is strongly influenced by the size, shape and arrangement of the pore spaces which hold the formation fluids. Therefore, it is expected that better knowledge of pore geometry would lead to design of more effective recovery processes. The concept of storage and flow channel pores has been presented as an important characteristic of limestone porosity.1 In this concept, storage pores are only containers for fluids, whereas flow channel pores are those pores which both contain and transmit the fluids. The work reported herein involves the concept of an additional pore characteristic called "porostriction". This characteristic can be visualized as the flow resistance between the storage and flow channel pores. This resistance is an important pore geometry characteristic because it determines how easily gas and oil can replenish fluids removed from the flow channel pores. Fatt and co-workers at the U. of California have studied the effect of storage porosity and a factor similar to porostriction on transient-flow response of models of porous media during a pressure build-up or drawdown test.55 These models consisted of porous sandstone cores with artificially simulated storage pores. It is the purpose of this paper to describe tests which permit the storage porosity and porostriction of actual reservoir core samples to be estimated. The tests used for this purpose involved not transient tests but, rather, an alternating-flow technique in which pressure and flow are varied according to a sine-wave relationship. This technique may offer advantages over transient methods. THE POROSTRICTION CONCEPT Before discussing alternating-flow (A.F.) tests in core samples, it is necessary to define the porostriction parameter. For this purpose attention is focused upon an elemental volume v representative of a porous medium having both flow channel pores and restricted-access storage pores. For such an elemental volume, it is considered that the storage porosity is combined to form a single pore and that the access into the storage porosity may be represented by a single capillary tube connecting the single pore to the flow channels of the elemental volume. Let the radius of the capillary tube be designated as Rc and its length as L,. When fluid flows into or out of the pore, the following equation (Poiseuille's law) relates flow rate q to pressure drop p, and the physical characteristics of the tube and the fluid of viscosity jx.

By H Haas

H. HAAS, San Francisco, Cal. (communication to the Secretary?). -Fig. 1 plainly shows that the comparison of the steam-turbine and Diesel-engine plants was made on a basis of 6,000 kw. continuous operating load. The tabulation of costs for an 8,000-kw. load is merely done to show the relation of increased output on' the unit power costs. Both plants would sacrifice their reserve capacity, which is to insure continuous operation, if operated to generate 8,000 kw. continuously; unless Mr. Hawkins advocates the operation of one of the turbines at 33.33 per cent. overload, retaining the other as a standby, which, besides overtaxing the turbine, results in a great loss of efficiency. It would he well for Mr. Hawkins to qualify certain of his statements. Thus, under the caption "Diesel Engines, Selection of Units," he says that "two of the largest Diesel-engine builders take the position that, in the present state of the art, they would not attempt to put out units over 1,000 kw.;" he should qualify it by saving that "two of the largest American Diesel-engine builders take the position that, in the present state of the art in the United States, they would not attempt to put out units over 1,000 kw." The reason that American manufacturers restrict themselves at present to units of that size is to be found not so much in a lack of experience in building large units as in a lack of a sufficient, demand for them in the United States to justify the heavy capital outlay connected with the development of such engines. There are relatively few localities in the United States where fuel prices are as high as they are in the Southwest, and regions of high fuel prices are sparsely settled and have a very limited demand for power. Where low fuel prices obtain, steam turbines are active competitors of Diesel engines for large power plants, particularly when the station load factor is low. As most of the American manufacturers of Diesel engines work under license agreements with European manufacturers, which limit their market to the United States and its possessions and Canada, a further limitation is imposed upon them, leaving to European firms practically the entire world as a market.

Jan 5, 1917

Jan 1, 1969

By H. E. Elliott, R. S. Busk, A. T. Peters

One of the problems of the fabricator of metals and alloys is the propensity of some composition rarnges toward abnoermal grain growth during certain stages of fabrication. In this respect magnesium alloys are no exception among alloys. Fortunately, convenient foundry control methods have been developed by which the abnormal grain growth possible in certain magnesium-alloy castings can be suppressed. An unusual characteristic of magnesium alloys, however, is that castings of some composition ranges are subject to local grain growth during heat-treatment without the necessity of intentional mechanical stressing of the part prior to heat-treatment. This effect occurs only under certain critical casting conditions, and only in certain alloys of greater than about 8.5 per cent aluminum content, such as C alloy (Mg, 9 per cent A1, 2 Per cent Zn, 0.2 Per cent Mn) and G alloy (Mg, 10 per cent Al, 0.2 per cent Mn). The first observation of this phenomenon in cast magnesium alloys occasioned much surprise, since it is not observed in other meta1s- Jeffries and Archer1 have stated that "the grain size of cast metals, provided they have not been plastically deformed, cannot be changed by heating below the melting point." The study of the conditions leading to abnormal grain growth in cast magnesium alloys, and of the mechanism of this phenomenon, has led to some very interesting observations. Perhaps the most significant of these was the observation that stresses originating from cooling contraction in magnesium-alloy castings are the only stresses necessary, under certain conditions, to cause local recrystallization and subsequent grain growth in the casting during heat-treatment. Before recent developments, this phenomenon of abnormal local grain growth Was a definite problem in the production foundry on C alloy sand castings. Illustrated (Fig. I) is a picture of a casting scrapped because of this defect. A mottled effect is produced in coarse-grained areas by suitable etching solutions. The properties of metal in the affected area are much impaired by such grain coarsening. Ultimate tensile strengths of half the normal value have been measured in metal of this nature. In this paper are described the techniques that have been developed by The DOW Chemical Co. for studying, and in large measure solving, this production problem. Also discussed are studies of the mechanism by which excessive grain coarsening occurs, and the fundamental conditions that produce this effect. The abnormal grain growth discussed in this paper will be referred to as "germinasium since this term has been definedl as any process leading to an abnormally coarse grain size. This paper deals only with abnormal local grain growth that may occur during the solution heat-treatment of certain magnesium-alloy castings, as dis-

Jan 1, 1945

By C. R. Van Hise

PART I.-GENERAL PRINCIPLES. [ ]

Jan 1, 1902

By Lester Guttman

The connection between short-range order and thermodynamic activities in binary solid solutions has been pointed out by Birchenall1 who calculated approximate values of the energy of interaction of Zn and Cu and of the degree of short-range order in alpha-brass at one composition and two temperatures. The purpose of this note is to call attention to a somewhat more accurate theory than that used by Birchenall and to extend the calculations to a wider range of temperatures and compositions as a means of testing its applicability. This is an example of the well-known general method of comparing measured thermodynamic functions of a system with those calculated from a microscopic model by means of statistical mechanics. In this case, mathematical approximations must be used which make difficult any decision about the validity of the model. Birchenall's statistical method resembles closely that calletl by Fowler and Guggenheim2 the "quasi-chemical" method which has been shown to lead in certain cases to results identical with those obtained by the method of Bethe.3 The quasi-chemical method has been extended by Takagi4 to give general formulas for the free energy of binary solid solutions based on several lattices at all compositions and temperatures. Specifically, he treats the four systems typified by: I. ß—brass; 2. a— brass; 3. AuCus; 4. AuCu. When the temperature is so high that no long-range order exists, these formulas reduce to the same form for all lattice types, namely: F - FO = (E - EO) - T(S - S°) = ½N(c — x)(2vAB — vAa - Vbb) + M1/2KTzN[x log x + 2(c - x) log (c - X) + (I - 26 + X) log (1 - 2c + x)] -kT(z - I)N[c log c+(I-c) log (I -c)] Eq 1 Here the symbols have the following meanings: F—Helmholtz free energy E—nergy 5—ntropy k—the gas constant per molecule z—coordination number, (e.g. I2 in a-brass). N—total number of atoms c—atomic fraction of A Vaa, vbb, vab—nergy per bond of the corresponding bonds log means log, throughout The superscript ° denotes the thermodynamic fuliction in the standard state, which has been chosen to be pure A or B with the same crystal structure as the solid solution. The quantity x is the ratio of the number of A-A bonds to the total number and for minimum F satisfies the equilibrium condition Vaa + Vbb — 2Vab _ (c — x)2 kT l0g x(i - 2C + x The free energy may also be written in terms of /La and B, the chemical potentials or partial free energies per alom:

Jan 1, 1949

By Lester Guttman

The connection between short-range order and thermodynamic activities in binary solid solutions has been pointed out by Birchenall1 who calculated approximate values of the energy of interaction of Zn and Cu and of the degree of short-range order in alpha-brass at one composition and two temperatures. The purpose of this note is to call attention to a somewhat more accurate theory than that used by Birchenall and to extend the calculations to a wider range of temperatures and compositions as a means of testing its applicability. This is an example of the well-known general method of comparing measured thermodynamic functions of a system with those calculated from a microscopic model by means of statistical mechanics. In this case, mathematical approximations must be used which make difficult any decision about the validity of the model. Birchenall's statistical method resembles closely that calletl by Fowler and Guggenheim2 the "quasi-chemical" method which has been shown to lead in certain cases to results identical with those obtained by the method of Bethe.3 The quasi-chemical method has been extended by Takagi4 to give general formulas for the free energy of binary solid solutions based on several lattices at all compositions and temperatures. Specifically, he treats the four systems typified by: I. ß—brass; 2. a— brass; 3. AuCus; 4. AuCu. When the temperature is so high that no long-range order exists, these formulas reduce to the same form for all lattice types, namely: F - FO = (E - EO) - T(S - S°) = ½N(c — x)(2vAB — vAa - Vbb) + M1/2KTzN[x log x + 2(c - x) log (c - X) + (I - 26 + X) log (1 - 2c + x)] -kT(z - I)N[c log c+(I-c) log (I -c)] Eq 1 Here the symbols have the following meanings: F—Helmholtz free energy E—nergy 5—ntropy k—the gas constant per molecule z—coordination number, (e.g. I2 in a-brass). N—total number of atoms c—atomic fraction of A Vaa, vbb, vab—nergy per bond of the corresponding bonds log means log, throughout The superscript ° denotes the thermodynamic fuliction in the standard state, which has been chosen to be pure A or B with the same crystal structure as the solid solution. The quantity x is the ratio of the number of A-A bonds to the total number and for minimum F satisfies the equilibrium condition Vaa + Vbb — 2Vab _ (c — x)2 kT l0g x(i - 2C + x The free energy may also be written in terms of /La and B, the chemical potentials or partial free energies per alom:

Jan 1, 1949

By Charles M. Rolker

(Read at the Philadelphia Meeting, February, 1878.) THE Mariposa estate, a grant made by the Mexican Government to Juan B. Alvarado, during the time when California was still under the dominion of Mexico, was purchased in 1847 by J. C. Fremont, and the United States patent issued to him in 1856. By sale, or its equivalent, money advanced, the property came into the hands of the Mariposa Company, June 25th, 1863, and through a varied existence of work and temporary inactivity, has as yet been kept as an undivided property, and rests at present with the Mariposa Land and Mining Company of California. I pass over this period of 15 years without giving the history of the ups and downs of the estate, partly because it is familiar to many, and also because I think in such a case this paper would assume too much the character of a narrative. The estate is situated in Mariposa County, California, about 170 miles southeast of San Francisco. It begins in lat. 37° 26’ 38" - north, and long. 119° 55' west, and runs 6 miles north; thence 6 1/2 miles west; thence 5 miles northwesterly towards the Merced River; thence 8 1/2 miles southerly; thence 3 miles easterly; thence 1 mile southerly; thence 2 miles easterly; thence 2 miles southerly; thence 2 miles easterly; thence I mile southerly; thence 2 miles easterly; thence 1 mile northerly, and thence 2 miles easterly to the place of the beginning; embracing 44,387 acres (70 sq. miles) more or less. To describe this vast estate in detail as to its full geology, its numerous quartz veins, its many facilities to exploit them and work them by cheap methods, would lead me further than I intend to go at present, and I will content myself to describe the latest workings of the company and its immediate field of operations. As long ago as 1860 the late Dr. Adelberg advised the running of an adit from the northwestern edge of the estate at Benton Mills on the Merced River. His object was to undercut the deepest workings of the then paying mines on the estate-the Pine Tree and Josephine. Following this advice, the tunnel known as "River Tunnel" was commenced. Its entrance is in S. 5, T. 4, S. R. 17 E. It is run in

Jan 1, 1878

By Johnson Crawford, Alan H. Hoagland

Zinc mining at Jefferson City began in 1854 with small scale production of oxidized ore from open pits. Significant production began in 1913 with the development of the Mascot Mine by the American Zinc Company. In 1965, four flotation mills were treating crude ore at the rate of about 12,000 tons per day and the Mascot-Jefferson City district currently is the largest zinc producing area in the United States. The producing mines, Mascot, Young, North Friends Station, New Market Zinc, Grasselli, Davis-Bible, Coy, and the Jefferson City, are 15 to 28 miles northeast of Knoxville in the Valley and Ridge physiographic province, an area of gentle relief lying between the more rugged Great Smoky Mountains and the Cumberland escarpment. The ore is strata bound, occurring essentially within a stratigraphic range of 200 feet in the Lower Kingsport and Upper Longview formations of Lower Ordovician age. In the lower strata of the mineralized section, the ore generally is found in coarsely crystalline elastic dolomite breccia containing silica and chert debris within a sequence of aphanitic limestones. The upper strata of the mineralized section are fine-grained primary dolomites that, in the ore zones, have been fragmented in mosaic patterns by solution collapse with the interfragmental space filled by white gangue dolomite and sphalerite. The mineralogy is unusually simple, sphalerite being the only important sulfide. Pyrite is very sparse. Dolomite gangue is abundant, silica was deposited in quite small amounts, calcite is minor, and fluorite and barite are very rare. The principal ore controlling structures are rubble breccia zones that were formed during the post-Lower Ordovician-pre-Middle Ordovician erosion interval by supergene solution as a phase of the development of a regional karst system of underground drainage that extended to' depths of at least 800 feet. The major Appalachian orogenic structures are post-ore and have been superimposed on the ore bodies. There is substantial evidence to support the current thinking of the writers that the ore deposits were formed at a depth not exc1~eding 800 feet.

Jan 1, 1968

By E. H. Crabtree

This paper traces the experimental and pilot plant work completed by the authors since 1939 including the various methods which have been developed in applying coarse activated carbon to cyanidation. The methods and results developed by the authors in desorbing gold and silver from carbons are given and the possibilities for the re-use of the desorbed carbons are discussed

Jan 1, 1950

By C. M. WEILD

ATTENTION has been turned recently to the exploration and development of certain large blanket-deposits of brown iron-ore in Cuba. The most conspicuous of these to-day, and the one upon which the most light has been shed, is the Mayari deposit, situated about 15 miles south of Nipe bay. Here the Spanish-American Co. has sole control over 18,500 acres of ore-bearing lands, reported by its engineers to contain 500,000,000 tons of ore; and the necessary plant and equipment, with docks and railways, is now under construction for the early marketing of this ore. A similar deposit, and undoubtedly the next to be exploited, is the ore-field at Moa bay, where 13,000 to 15,000 acres of ore-lands, immediately adjacent to the shores of an excellent harbor, have been generously covered by numerous mining-claims, practically all controlled by four large interests. This deposit is now estimated to contain approximately 350,000,000 tons, on the basis of dried ore ready for shipment, a figure which may be increased when the western limits of the ore-deposit have been more accurately defined. Other deposits of the same type, but smaller and less accessible, are those at Cubitas, situated from 12 to 15 miles north of Camaguey city, and at Taco bay and Navas, points lying a few miles west of Baracoa. The area of the Cubitas deposit is said to be 6,000 acres, and the yield of ore is estimated at 150,000,000 tons. The Baracoa. deposits are less well known, but preliminary estimates have placed their joint ore-reserves at 40,000,000 tons. Accepting the above tonnages as reasonably correct, we conclude that the deposits enumerated give promise of adding about 1,000,000,000 tons of iron-ore to the world's supply; they have, therefore, to be considered in any attempt to fore-

Aug 1, 1909

By R. J. Reynik, F. R. Meeks

IN the classical paper1 of Mehl and Rhines entitled "The Rates of Diffusion in the Alpha Solid Solutions of Copper", the authors state: "It has been mathematically demonstrated that the treatment of the data as though the diffusion were taking place between two flat plates instead of radially in a cylinder has no appreciable effect upon the results. Were the bars of a much smaller diameter, a modification of the analytical treatment would have been required." Unfortunately, the errors in the reported concentrations are much too large to neglect, as shown in the results below. A planar treatment of diffusion data assumes that the reference planes separated by a nominal distance (AX) have identical areas. An adjustment must be made on the concentration data should the successive diffusion planes differ in area. The Mehl-Rhines' diffusion samples were cylindrical with copper electroplated onto copper-based alloys. Successive surface areas through which diffusion occurs are in the ratio ri/r1, where ri is the radial distance between the center of the sample and the center of the i th shell to which the host (alloy) atoms diffuse, and r1 is the radial distance between the center of the sample and the center of the innermost (i = 1) experimentally reported shell from which the alloy atoms diffuse. Hence, ri/r1 (i = 1, ..., n layers) is a dimensionless correction factor to be multiplied by the reported concentration data before planar-data analysis is attempted. In the forty-seven samples reported, the original interface between the copper alloys and the electroplated copper was located at a mean distance of 8.255 mm from the center of the samples. The successive layers, machined off the samples, were approximately 0.0762 mm thick. The distance (xi) at which concentration (ci) was reported was always a distance measured with respect to the original interface, that is, with respect to the fixed distance of 8.255 mm. Hence, the as yet undiscovered Kirkendall Effect was precompensated. The values of ri and r1 are therefore given by ri = 8.255 + xi and Y, = 8.255 + x,. The illustrative table below lists the position xi (mm), ri (mm), the value of ri/r1, the reported concentration (ci) in weight percent (only valid for radial analysis of data), and the corrected concentration [c'i = (ri/r1)ci] in weight percent (only valid for planar analysis of data). Similar tables can be constructed for the remaining forty-six samples. The corrected data can be used to re-evaluate the diffusion coefficients for the reported systems.

Jan 1, 1965

By C. A. Gibbons

AFTER nine years of extremely de- pressed business, marked mostly A with red ink on the balance sheets of most coal companies and with an increasing internal competitive struggle for diminishing markets, somewhat of a change appeared during 1939. Shipments increased and prices generally firmed, giving the coal industry increasing optimism and encouragement for the future. Specifically, it now appears that bituminous coal production for 1939 will approximate 378,000,000 tons, and anthracite production will approximate 47,500,000 tons, bituminous production being around 14 per cent ahead of 1938 and anthracite production 12 per cent better. The curve on p. 31, showing both bituminous and anthracite production, furnished by the bituminous coal division of the Department of the Interior, shows graphically most of the 1939 monthly production and clearly illustrates the increased production.

Jan 1, 1940

By I. R. Kramer

I. R. Kramer (Martin Co.)—In a recent paper Nakada and Chalmers24 reported some observations of effects of surface conditions on the stress-strain curves of aluminum and gold single crystals. It is of interest to compare these observations with the results published previously in this journal and to comment on their general conclusions. In brief, Nakada and Chalmers concluded that the removal of the surface layer of a prestrained specimen lowered the stress-strain curve for aluminum but not that for gold. Further, they concluded that the surface work hardening of aluminum is confined to a depth not more than l0-3 cm. In our results25 published previously, it was pointed out that when prestrained specimens of aluminum and gold were polished to reduce the thickness upon reloading the initial flow stress decreased markedly. Further if a sufficient amount of metal was removed, the yield point failed to appear. With continued application of the load the stress-strain curve became coincident with that of the virgin crystal. We have found this behavior in some 100 determinations to hold consistently for gold, aluminum, and copper in both single and poly-crystalline specimens. The amount of strain required before the curves coincided depends upon the amount of metal removed but it is usually less than 0.01. This type of behavior is the same as that reported for metarecovery by other investigators.29 For aluminum specimens which have been prestrained and then heated to temperatures above 50°C we have consistently found that the stress-strain curve was typical of the orthorecovery28 type. In this case the stress-strain curve always lies below that of the virgin specimen. With respect to Ref. 24 the curves for aluminum are always below that of the virgin curves, while those for gold become coincident. This observation indicates at least for aluminum that the specimens must have been heated to a temperature high enough to cause recovery by an alteration of the internal dislocations. In addition, a recovery would be expected because of the removal of the surface work-hardened layer. Nakada27 had reported that, with his particular apparatus in which a perchloric acid polishing solution was used, the temperature of the specimen increased 65°C. The curves presented in Ref. 24 for gold do not permit one to detect the initial flow stress upon reloading after the surface-removal treatment. In fact, contrary to the method used by Nakada and Chalmers, the change in the stress-strain curve produced by a surface-removal treatment cannot be described in terms of a decrease in stress at strains much higher than that at the initial flow stress because of the coincidence of the curves at the higher strain values. With regard to the depth of the work-hardened surface layer, our data show for aluminum single crystals (7.5 by 0.3 by 0.3 cm) that the initial flow stress remained constant after 12 x 10-3 cm had been removed from the thickness. This depth was independent of the prior strain. For gold crystals this depth is somewhere between 10 x 10-3 and 20 x 10-3 cm. Y. Nakada (author's reply)— Kramer states,28 "for aluminum specimens which have been prestrained and then heated to temperatures above 50°C, we have consistently found that the stress-strain curve was typical of the orthorecovery28 type. In this case the stress-strain curve always lies below that of the virgin specimen." However, Cherian et a1.26 discovered that aluminum polycrystals annealed at 32" and 100°C showed the metarecovery behavior. They showed that the orthorecovery behavior did not appear until the crystals were annealed at 150°C. Kramer suggests28 that the drop in the flow stress of aluminum crystals after the surface removal by electropolishing24 may be due to the recovery caused by the temperature rise which may occur during the electropolishing.27 However, as indirectly stated in Ref. 24, the current density used in these electro -polishing experiments was 0.15 amp per sq cm. According to ref. 27, this current density should cause a temperature rise of only 40°C. This may cause the metarecovery but not the orthorecovery. Furthermore, as stated explicitly in Ref. 24, the surface removal was accomplished by chemical etching as well as by electropolishing. The results were the same for both electropolishing and etching. During the etching, the specimen temperature did not rise above 35°C. Some aluminum crystals were placed in water at 35° C for 30 min. These crystals did not show the decrease in flow stress. Therefore, it is quite clear that the flow-stress drop after the surface removal is not caused by a high-temperature recovery. However, as Kramer points out,28 it is quite possible that the internal dislocation structure may have been altered because of the removal of the highly work-hardened surface layer. However, how much this rearrangement contributes toward the flow-stress decrease is not known at present.

Jan 1, 1965

By DR. SAMUEL B. CHRISTY

? THE man is always greater than his work.? The training of the men who are to develop the mineral resources of the world is the most important problem connected with mining engineering. It becomes ever more important to civilization as the mineral wealth of the earth approaches exhaustion. I have therefore decided to consider a few of the more important problems arising in the training of the mining engineer, and especially those arising in America. THE PECULIAR NATURE OF MINERAL WEALTH. Mining and Agriculture are the two fundamental arts. Without the latter our existence would be precarious; without the former, our civilization impossible. Agriculture furnishes that regular supply of food and raiment which leads to the growth of large communities in which cultivated leisure first becomes possible; while raining furnishes the metallic thread from which is woven that complex fabric we call civilization. But in these two arts the conditions for success are widely different. Most of the crops that the farmer reaps may be harvested year after year, and the proper fertilizers being added, he may continue the annual harvest indefinitely, while, as a result of cultivation, his farm becomes yearly more valuable. But the crop the miner reaps can be harvested but once in the history of the race. Our mineral wealth has taken unknown ages to mature in the bosom of the earth. The ripened fruit can be plucked but once. There are no fertilizers for worked out mines. It never pays to work over a mine that has been

Sep 1, 1905

By D. W. McGlashan, K. N. Mcleod

IN the use of free bubbles with precise temperature control and continuous pH measurement, the contact angle apparatus differs from all previous equipment. Experimental procedures differ sharply from the captive bubble method1,2 of introducing the gaseous phase in the three-phase system. When freed from the tube and captured by a solid surface, a bubble more closely conforms to the spherical ideal set up by the usual mathematical analysis of surface free energy or surface tensional relationships of the forces involved. The assembled equipment, Fig. 1, departs from the usual contact angle apparatus in providing: 1) water circulation for fixing temperature, 2) instruments to measure and record pH during testing, and 3) a system for producing and using free bubbles. The apparatus allows testing over a broad range of closely controlled conditions, and the use of free bubbles gives contact angles independent of operator manipulation, which was unavoidable in the older captive bubble method. A bubble released below the specimen rises through the liquid and contacts the mineral. If the mineral is gas-avid the bubble adheres, developing a finite contact angle. Reaction cells (1), 2x33/8x5 3/16 in. ID, are of pyrex glass 5 mm thick. To prevent optical distortion, the sides are optical flats and are planed parallel to within five wave lengths of light over the entire surface. Special cement is required to withstand chemical attack and thermal shock. The cell is placed in a thermal jacket (2) made of welded aluminum. A water seal for the optical ports is made by using O-rings tightened against the flats of the cell by fine-threaded and adjustable ports, Fig. 2. In-flow water is discharged downward from a manifold located near the bottom of the cell jacket. Water overflows the weirs at each end of the cell jacket, discharging from both sides to a collecting manifold (24). A hose (26) leads the overflow water to the thermal-conditioner well (4), which is recessed to accommodate a reaction cell and two beakers (150 ml). Both the thermal jacket and the thermal-conditioner well are insulated to minimize the effects of temperature differentials. Water, discharging from the thermal-conditioner well, returns to a thermostat bath and pump (3), from which it is pumped to the thermal jacket. The thermostat bath permits temperatures to be adjusted from 1" or 2°C to 80°C and will maintain the selected temperature within 0.2ºC. An electrode support (22) groups the four electrodes (8) so that they fit conveniently into the reaction cell, Fig. 2. This assembly holds the glass electrode, the calomel electrode, the temperature-

Jan 1, 1957