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By R. G. Knickerbocker, T. E. Evans, D. R. Torgeson

"INTRODUCTION Sponge iron is a product resulting from the reduction of an iron oxide at such a low temperature that fusion does not occur, and the reduced particles retain substantially the same shape as the original ore. The removal of oxygen in the reduction process leaves the metal porous and reactive. Sponge iron may be compared in general to a chemically precipitated substance insofar as reactive properties are concerned. The high specific surface and the orientation of metallic structure are factors which probably contribute to the reactive properties of sponge iron.The term ""gaseous reduction,"" as applied to iron ores, required clarification. Strong evidence exists, for example, that ore is partly reduced to sponge iron by carbon monoxide in the blast furnace at temperatures around 800° C. at a point that may be as high as 30 feet above the tuyores. In 1923 and 1924, Sims and Wood attempted to reduce iron oxide with carbon in an Arsem vacuum furnace at 980° C. These investigators found that only 6 percent of the iron was reduced to metal when the iron oxide-carbon mixture was heated for 1 hour under evacuated conditions, whereas at atmospheric pressure 70 percent of the iron was metallized. Their results indicate that the process of iron-ore reduction at temperatures below the melting point of the ore may proceed largely, if not entirely, by the action of reducing gases even when the reducing agent is solid carbon. Therefore, the term ""gaseous reduction,"" as used heroin, is defined as a process in which iron ore is brought into intimate contact with a reducing gas produced in separate-equipment from the reduction chamber itself.A large amount of pilot-plant development on gaseous reduction of iron ores has been carried out by the Bureau of Mines at the Boulder Experiment Station and had as its objective the reduction of fine iron ore by means of producer gas. The use of use gas was prompted by two considerations: First, the possible utilization of large reserves of Western noncoking bituminous coals and lignites contiguous to iron-ore drewwing; and second, an investigation of the results that might be achieved in the pilot-plant gaseous reduction of fine iron ores by means of a relatively reducing gas. The results obtained, it was felt, would be of considerable value in indicating the direction which gaseous reduction experimentation must take for the development of a commercially practicable and economic process for the production of sponge iron."

Dec 1, 1946

By C. M. Flynn

The Bureau of Mines prepared and investigated xanthated sawdust adsorbents to determine their effectiveness in removing heavy metal ions from dilute aqueous solutions, mine-drainage waters, and brines. Stripping of the metal values from the metal-laden adsorbent was also investigated. The treated sawdusts had an adsorption capacity of 0.3 to 0.4 meg/g dry adsorbent for Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd, Hg, or Pb from feed solutions with pH 5 to 6. The feed solutions tested included mine-drainage waters and geothermal brine. Effluent metal concentrations as low as 0.05 to 0.1 mg/l were obtained at effluent pH values of 6 to 9. The order of affinity of metals for the sawdust adsorbent is Na«Ca~Mg~Mn<Zn<Ni<Cd<Pb~Cu. The presence of Ca, Mg, or Na in concentrations as high as 2 g/l does not seriously impair the heavy-metal adsorption. Metals were desorbed from the metal-laden adsorbent by elution with dilute mineral acids, sodium cyanide, or salts of ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid.

Jan 1, 1979

By A. A. Berk

Other Federal agencies have been coming to the Bureau of Mines for help with the purchase and utilization of fuel, largely coal, almost since the day the Bureau was created in 1910. The requests covered a wide range of fuel-economy problems and included boiler-water treatment after it became apparent that water-formed deposits on heating surfaces acted as insulators, decreasing heat transfer and impairing fuel efficiency. Dr. Ralph E. Hall, a Bureau of Mines physical chemist determined the reactions that cause adhering scale to form in boilers (7)2 and went on to introduce scientific principles into water treatment for scale prevention (8). Widespread publicity of these achievements increased the requests for help from Federal steam-generating plants. Since no other Federal agency (even those which were more directly concerned with testing water) wanted to provide boiler-feedwater service, the Bureau decided to continue to give requested help to Federal agencies, Later, the Congress endorsed such agency cooperation as an economy measure,

Jan 1, 1963

By J. J. Forbes

Investigations by the Bureau of Mines and by mining-research departments of European countries have established definitely the value of rock-dusting to prevent or limit the propagation of coal-mine explosions. Its effectiveness in this connection has been demonstrated not only by research but by actual coal-mine explosions in which hundreds of lives have been saved because of its presence. In a general way this paper gives pertinent facts concerning rock dusting practices in the United States. Information has been obtained from many reliable sources, and various coal-mining companies have furnished data on cost and other details.

Jan 1, 1939

By N. A. C. Smith, E. W. Dean, W. A. Jacobs, H. H. Hill

Fractional distillation is the most important process in the commercial refining of petroleum. The same procedure, conducted on a small scale, is the basis of a number of analytical methods of wide application in the petroleum laboratory. The Bureau of Mines has studied apparatus and procedure for the distillation analysis of petroleum, and this report is presented as a record of developments up to the present time. The work is incomplete, but the extensive information that has been obtained to date is made available as a guide in handling laboratory distillation problems. The analytical distillation of petroleum is commonly made to determine range of boiling points or to separate the oil. into fractions for detailed examination, or both. When only one of these two ends is sought the procedure involved is notably simpler than when, as is more common, information is required regarding both boiling range and properties of fractions. Moreover the degree of minuteness of measurement and the accuracy of the data required from analytical distillations differ considerably. Often the simplest sort of comparative figures are satisfactory; other tests require complicated and highly tedious procedure. No one distillation method is universally applicable, and it is impossible for anyone group of investigators to foresee all the different kinds of requirements that may occur in the industry.

Jan 1, 1922

Volume 2 presents the results of studies of Phelps Dodge Corporation&apos;s tailings embankments numbers 1West and 2 West, at Morenci, Ariz. The work involved compilation and description of pertinent factors relating to the physical features and operational characteristics of the facility, including information on embankment construction practices; investigation and research of the general geologic and seismicity characteristics of the site and vicinity; limited field exploration and materials sampling and testing at the site; installation and limited monitoring of piezometers, surface movement markers, and slope indicator casing; limited laboratory testing of materials to evaluate the basic index and engineering properties of the embankment and tailings materials; selected engineering analyses of the embankment for various types of potential "failure" conditions; and includes appendices.

Jan 1, 1974

By Manuel Gomez

Bituminous coals having maximum fluidity values in the 40- to 25,400-dial-divisions-per-minute (ddpm) range were carbonized in a continuous, entrained-bed reactor. Carbonization was conducted in an 8-inch diameter, vertical reactor at temperatures from 955° to 1,345° F and at air-to-coal ratios ranging from 4.63 to 16.12 scf/lb of moisture-and ash-free coal charged. Carbonization rates from about 118 to 360 lb/hr, as-carbonized basis, were examined. It was demonstrated that carbonization temperature and air-to-coal ratio must exceed minimum values for continuous operation. Within the operating conditions discussed, highly fluid bituminous coal was carbonized to produce tar and nonagglomerated char. The yield of tar ranged from 21.3 to 38.9 gallons per ton and the char yield ranged from 1,109 to 1,563 pounds per ton, all units expressed on a moisture-and ash-free basis. It was demonstrated that the maximum fluidity and the average size of the coal along with the air-to-coal ratio and the carbonization temperature act together to influence the carbonization product yields and certain properties of the products. Prediction equations were developed from the data for product yields and selected properties of the char, tar, and gas.

Jan 1, 1968

By L. D. Schmidt, H. G. Graham

Several processes for the production of ultra-clean coal for electrode carbon were developed in Germany prior to and during World War II . These processes have been investigated since the end of the war by the British and U. S. Government missions . As the reports of the investigations are not readily available to the public , it is the purpose of this paper to present the information which has been obtained regarding the methods by which ultraclean coal was produced . Almost all the ultra-clean coal was used in the manufacture of electrodes for the production of aluminum and magnesium . Standard raw materials for making these electrodes are pitch coke and petroleum coke , which are nearly ashless . The inclusion of ash in the electrode carbon results in lowered efficiency and impure metal from the reduction process . Petroleum coke and pitch coke were in very short supply in Germany during the war , so that it was necessary to augment the supply with carbon produced from coal . In the emergency , methods were developed to clean coal which had never before been economically feasible . However , a demand for nearly ash-free coal might develop in the United States if a shortage of petroleum coke were to occur at the same time as a strong demand for light metals . Other uses of ultraclean coal are in direct hydrogenation of coal , in production of activated carbon, and for special fuels . Specifications for electrode carbon are rather severe owing to the necessity for producing pure metal . Maximum amounts of impurities allowable in American practice are as follows : Total ash , 1.0 percent ( in finished coke , 0.7 percent ) Silica , 0.08 percent Ca or Na, or their sum , 0.12 percent Sulfur , 2.0 percent Ba , Ni , Cr , Mn , Co , and V are objectionable in very small amounts . The most important process for ultra cleaning of coal in Germany was froth flotation . Froth flotation had been used widely there to process washery -water sludges and to recover coking coal from high - ash fines . Its use was indicated , therefore , when the demand for ultra low-ash coal arose . In two plants the coal cleaned by froth flotation was treated with acid or caustic to lower further the ash content . Another process used on an industrial scale was that of dissolving the coal substance in the middle oil from direct hydrogenation of coal under controlled pressure and temperature . The resulting paste was heated, filtered , and the oil distilled off . The residue was a low-ash organic material that could be carbonized for electrode carbon or could be hydrogenated directly . Several other processes had been developed to the laboratory or pilot - plant stage but had never been used on a commercial scale . These processes included cleaning by centrifugal action , cleaning by electrostatic action , and cleaning by forming a paste with oil in water . The coal-preparation plants at the Carl Alexander mine , Augusta Viktoria mine , and Kőenigin Elisabeth mine are described in Bureau of Mines Information Circular 7389 : " Coal Preparation Practice in Western Germany" , by Thomas . Fraser and M. G. Driessen . Most of the special equipment used at these plants is described in the above publication .

Oct 1, 1948

By H. B. Hill

Virtually from the date of its discovery in December 1928 the Oklahoma City oil and gas field, Oklahoma County, Okla., has attracted national and international attention. The history of the field has been associated closely with rules and regulations pertaining to production control and proration practices. Early development was rapid, and Oklahoma City soon attained the distinction of being the first major field in which the producing wells were over a mile in depth. Before the structural features of the reservoir had been disclosed every outpost well was considered a "wildcat", so complex appeared the underground geology, The wells not only were deep and the reservoir pressures high, but the production from the early wells was a high A.P.I. gravity oil, accompanied by large volumes of gas. Several "blow-outs" and fired occurred during the early development, and the close proximity of these now unusual events to a large city gave the field much publicity, both local and national. Later, when its production threatened to demoralize the market for oil and its products, the Oklahoma City field again attracted wide publicity. The then little understood geology of the underground reservoir and the diversity of ownership of the land overlying the producing structure made orderly development and production difficult to enforce. Proration was enforced with difficulty., and the, rate of production from the field continued to increase until, on August 4, 1931, martial law was declared in all prorated fields of the State, and most of the wells in the Oklahoma City field wore shut n. On October 9, 1931, permission was granted t o reopen and prod e the wells in the Oklahoma City field. The order permitting production of the wells provided that during the period beginning October 10 and extending to October 20, 1931, all wells in the field that hid not produced more oil than specified under the earlier proration orders and that had been shut in for the required 55-day period were permitted to produce 5 percent of their last potential during that 10-day period. On November 7, 1931, the Corporation Commission of Oklahoma issued an order which divided the Oklahoma City field into the Wilcox, Arbuckle, and Lower Simpson zones for proration purposes. Wells producing from the Wilcox zone were allowed to produce 4 1/2 percent of their potential5/ from November 1, 1931, to January 1, 1932; Arbuckle limestone wells were allowed to produce 250 barrels of oil daily; and Simpson sandstone wells which had a potential of over 2,000 barrels per day or which made 3 percent or more water were allowed to produce 200 barrels of oil per day.

Jan 1, 1937

By B. W. Gandrud

This is the third report published by the Bureau of Mines concerning the washability of Black Creek coal. Both of the former reports5/6/ dealt with the Black Creek coal at the Bradford mine, Dixiana, Ala., near the northeastern extremity of the Warrior field, whereas the present report is based on float-and-sink tests of coal from what is presumably the Black Creek bed near the southern extremity of the field. Although the Yolande Coal & Coke Co., owners of the property at Yolanda No. 6 slope, consider this opening to be on the Black Creek bed, the authors do not feel that there is as yet positive proof that this correlation is correct. There has been little or no development of the Black Creek bed in the Yolande Basin in the past, and a posy-tine identification of the bed at Yolande No. o will have to await further exploration and development. The Yolande No. 6 is an exploration slope 3/4 mile north of Rockcastle, Ala. The slope is approximately 400 feet from top to bottom on a dip of 18° As fax as the authors can ascertain, coal has never been produced commercially from the Black Creek bed in the southwestern part of the Warrior field. Exploration work in the past has indicated that the Black Creek coal in. this area is extremely friable and high in sulfur. Extreme friability would naturally discourage its&apos; use as a domestic and railroad fuel, and high sulfur content would be a disasvantage in its use for coking coal. The present study of this coal has been made with particular reference to sulfur elimination on the assumption that it would make a good coking coal provided enough of the sulfur could be eliminated by washing.

Jan 1, 1939

VOLUME II Volume II, in conjunction with Volume I, is a general guide to the selection of cost-effective methods of site data acquisition in all geologic environmental, and socio-political circumstances. The judgement of a generalist or trained specialist must be relied upon in the final analysis to design the optimum program for a specific site.

Jan 1, 1976

By Fred Leighton

The Bureau of Mines has developed rock noise source location techniques that may be used to obtain precise and practical source locations from micro-seismic field data. These techniques enable one to monitor all or any part of a rock structure and map progressive stress buildup or rock movement. Thus, the microseismic method of determining instability in rock structures is becoming an invaluable engineering tool for the mining or civil engineer engaged in rock excavation and construction.

Jan 1, 1970

By Eugene T. Sheridan

The Bureau of Mines annually canvasses the peat producers in the United states and publishes economic data on the peat industry, based upon reports submitted by producers. This publication lists all producers that reported commercial production to the Bureau for 1960 and presents data on individual plants. The companies named herein represent virtually all commercial producers, although a few small companies may not have been canvassed as the industry has many small operations that operate intermittently. Output of the various companies listed ranged from a few tons to more than 50,000 tons. Peat is included in the Bureau&apos;s annual surveys of the mineral industries because peat is classified as a mineral fuel. Although none is used for fuel in the United States, peat is a potential source of energy and ranks as one of our large mineral resources. The domestic peat industry sells peat, chiefly, for use as a soil amendment for general soil-improvement purposes. During the past decade the industry has expanded rapidly with operations increasing from 45 in 1947-494/ to 115 in 1960. Output during this period has more than tripled, increasing from 131,782 short tons to 470,889 short tons.

Jan 1, 1961

By Danton L. Paulson

Elevated temperature electrical resistivity measurements were made by the Bureau of Mines on arc-melted, spin-cast, and hot-pressed columbium carbide¬carbon (CbC-C) and zirconium carbide-carbon (ZrC-C) materials up to 2,000° C. The CbC-C materials displayed electrical resistivity values ranging from 35.20 microhm cm at 23° C for hot-pressed material containing 12 wt pct carbon to 242.64 microhm cm at 1,622° C for arc-cast material containing 17.0 wt pct carbon. Electrical resistivity values ranged from 29 microhm cm at 20° C for arc-cast ZrC-C containing 16 wt pct carbon to 279 microhm cm at 1,951° C for hot-pressed ZrC-C containing 21 wt pct carbon. Data from a previous report were included to establish comparison between the electrical resistivities of the CbC-C, ZrC-C, and HfC-C systems.

Jan 1, 1969

This study of underground mine water inflow was initiated by the U. S. Bureau of Mines in March 1980. The objective of this study is to evaluate the hydrologic variables associated with surface water and ground water systems that affect the inflow of ground water into an underground mine. Data collection techniques are reviewed for their applicability for quantifying these hydrologic variables. Innovative techniques are also investigated. Existing analytical and numerical procedures for predicting underground mine water inflow are reviewed and evaluated. Over 300 computer models were reviewed for their applicability to modeling underground mine water inflow. The model UNSAT2 is utilized for modeling inflow to a shaft and tunnel or drift. This model and the techniques developed in this study are applied to two existing mines.

Jan 1, 1982

The mine surveillance and communication system hereafter described provides continuous local and remote monitoring of several parameters critical to normal mine operation at each of ten underground sites in the Bruceton Research Mine. The techniques employed are well proven and have been care-fully chosen to provide the best solution to the technical problems involved while giving special attention to economic considerations.

Jan 1, 1973

This publication summarizes, for all interested parties, the research, development, and demonstration in-house projects programed by the Bureau of Mines for fiscal year 1979 (October 1, 1978--September 30, 1979) under its Nine Health and Safety Research program. The objective of these projects is to provide an ordered and sequenced series of advances toward the Bureau&apos;s overall goal of providing the system technology required to create a healthier and safer working environment for the Nation&apos;s miners.

Jan 1, 1979

By B. K. Shibler, W. G. Sandell, G. M. Potter, H. D. Snedden

"INTRODUCTION During the course of the investigation of the occurrence of manganese deposits in the western United States, examining 'engineers of the Bureau of Mines collected samples from seven manganese properties in Grand and beery Counties, Utah. These were supplemented by five samples submitted by property owners. Since all of the ores were too low-grade for use in producing ferromanganese for steel manufacture, some means of beneficiation was required to produce marketable concentrates, and metallurgical studies were made on each of the samples.Most of the ores Investigated are similar in one respect: At least part of the 'manganese oxide areas contains minute inclusions of gangue. This occurrence materially enhances the complexity of the ore, partly by .increasing the complexity of mineral association, but largely through making manganese-quartz liberation more difficult. In such ores, there is a marked tendency for the manganese minerals to be retained as shells or coatings on the surfaces of quartz particles when crushed. Particles of this type represent considerable loss of manganese in tailing, if gravity-concentration methods are employed, or tend to' float, thus carrying an appreciable quantity of gangue into the concentrate, if treated by flotation.Plus 48-percent manganese sinters were made from some of the ores tested, but, in general, intimate association of manganese minerals with silica limited the degree of beneficiation attainable."

Dec 1, 1947

By Peter de Bakker

The objective of this contract was to develop a simple, reliable, economical, remote-control roof bolting module for installation of mechanical and resin bolts. It was to be capable of placing longer than seam height bolts, up to 10 ft lengths, from a seam height of 36 to 72 in., while keeping the operator under supported roof. The resulting machine, called REM-Bolter, is a low profile unit that utilizes Foster-Miller Flexible Shaft Roof Drill, a Bendix Roof Bolt Inserter and a newly designed. Roof Bolt Lifter/Torquer. Every effort was made to strike a compromise between complete automation and complete manual control. In a controlled laboratory environment the REM-Bolter remotely installed 1000 bolts. Subsequently the machine was tested in an operating coal mine where 500 holes were drilled (and an equal number of bolts were installed) remotely, over a 4 month period. The results of all tests Live shown that the operator of a machine of this kind can quickly, and repeatedly, install rootbolts remotely from his operator compartment some 8 ft away from the drilling/bolting action. The report includes recommendations for improvements to the present REM-Bolter design that would translate the present test bed into a second generation test bed and a potential first generation production unit.

Jan 1, 1983

By Lulie H. Crump

Salient information on reserves, production, and consumption of fuels and energy by State is summarized in this Bureau of Mines publication. Reserve and production data are shown for each of the fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas liquids, and natural gas) and for uranium. The consumption data of each of the major consuming sectors (household-commercial, industrial, transportation, electric power, and miscellaneous) are broken down by energy source (coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydropower, and nuclear). In addition, total energy consumption in the Nation in 1973 is compared with consumption in 1972 and 1974 (preliminary data).

Jan 1, 1976