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By Michael J. Robison, Wojciech F. Klecan, Robert L. Horner

Since 1928, nearly 64 km (40 mi) of tunnel have been excavated within the relatively soft Cooper Group, more commonly known as the “Cooper Marl,” for water supply and transporting wastewater in the Charleston area. The majority of these tunnels are unlined and still in operation, while others collapsed shortly after excavating. Tunnel behavior and support requirements vary considerably in this material due to differences in geotechnical properties. The 4.8 km (3 mi) long, 2.4 m (8 ft) diameter Bushy Park Water Tunnel, completed in 1997 for Charleston’s Commissioners of Public Works(CPW), required no ground support. By comparison, the 1.6 km (1 mi) long, 2.4 m (8 ft)diameter Harbor Wastewater Replacement Tunnel now under construction needs continuous support close to the advancing face, despite being located in the same geological formation. Case histories and general guidelines for designing tunnels in the Cooper Marl are presented.

Jan 1, 2001

By D. S. Yantek, C. B. Brown

The mining industry is beginning to implement lithiumion batteries (LIBs) to power mine utility vehicles (MUVs) and rubber-tired mantrips (RTMs). However, the ability of LIBs to withstand the harsh conditions for these applications has not been rigorously evaluated. Concerns with the use of LIBs in the mining environment will be discussed including the effects of mechanical shock and vibration, temperature extremes, and moisture exposure. This paper will discuss adverse effects of the mining environment on LIBs and provide an overview of scientific gaps associated with the environmental susceptibility of LIBs used on MUVs and RTMs.

Feb 1, 2024

By T. H. Chan

As the University of Hong Kong and their advisors planned their new Centennial Campus it became clear that they would have to re-provide existing water reservoirs on an adjacent site with new salt water reservoirs located underground in two new caverns. The existing reservoirs are owned by the Water Supplies Department who provide salt water for sanitary flushing and a separate potable water supply for regular use. Although underground reservoirs had not previously been adopted locally, the planning has been completed to a tight schedule and the construction is well advanced. The need to preserve historic buildings imposed constraints, as did the requirement to minimise potential construction nuisance for the local community and environment. This paper presents the background to the project and the work carried out to develop an innovative, sustainable and environmental acceptable solution. Construction progress to date is also presented.

By Jerry Pyatt

Lead has been used by mankind since before the Egyptian pyramids were built. Its durability provides for a continuum of innovation. As the largest integrated lead producer in the Western Hemisphere, The Doe Run Co. is committed to locating, mining, processing and sup-plying lead in ways that are responsible and sustainable. It takes ingenuity and resolve to successfully operate in the heavy industry field today. Doe Run is committed to applying responsibility through sustainability, lean manufacturing, safety, environmental stewardship, education and workforce development, and com-munity support.

Jan 1, 2008

By Desiree Willis

Disc cutters have determined excavation rates of rock tunneling projects for more than 50 years. First developed in 1956 by James S. Robbins, disc cutters (then 279 mm or 11 in. in diameter) were used to bore limestone of 190 MPa (27,500 psi) unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and were loaded with 7.12 t (15,700 lbs) each. Modern cutters have reached up to 508 mm (20 in.) in diameter and are typically loaded with up to 31.7 t (70,000 lb) to economically bore through the hardest of rock up to plus 400 MPa (60,000 psi) UCS. New developments, such as larger cutter diameters, are geared to increasing the bearing capacity and wear life of the cutting structure. This, in turn, increases cutter life, cutter load and cutter penetration. Disc cutters have also been re-designed on a small scale for use in hard-rock utility installations. Additional variables also affect the three factors, including cutter spacing on the cutterhead, cutterhead diameter and cutter materials.

Jan 1, 2007

By Mohamed Yusuff

Modern transportation systems are one of the most important achievements of our civilization and provide us with tools for broadening individual and social freedom of choice. The transportation system initiated today is handed dawn to the next generation, probably with little choice because of the enormous expenditure of monies involved, and influence their way of life as to where they should live and where they should work. The ever increasing antagonism between the citizens and the planners of the transportation systems necessitates a careful review of the entire planning process. The planning process can be broadly classified into: the goal formulation and decision making process; the plan development process; and the plan implementation process. THE GOAL FORMULATION AND DECISION MAKING PROCESS Goal formulation and decision making is one of the vital phases of the planning process and is primarily based upon social values. In measuring social values, the planner must employ an appropriate scale of measurement since in the absence of this yardstick, these values tend to became vague and abstract ideals. The need for major social programs and concerns (poverty, etc.) of the urban areas should be analyzed to determine the type of transportation system which would contribute to the solution.

Jan 1, 1974

By M. Heger

February 2, 1999 marks a milestone in earth-moving technology at the San Miguel Lignite Mine. It was on that date that The North American Coal Corporation (NAC) took delivery of three Leica Dozer 2000 GPS grade control systems for use on its bulldozers. The primary reason for the purchase of these grade control systems was to prove that GPS technology could safely and economically be utilized on heavy equipment to assist operators in defining grades. If these properties were successfully demonstrated, the ultimate vision of the project was to expand the system to a point were GPS would become the primary means of providing grade control information to the mine’s heavy equipment operators. Twenty nine months and more than $500,000 later this vision was realized when the final bulldozer operating at the San Miguel Lignite Mine was equipped with Dozer 2000. Presently North American Coal has a total of nine Dozer 2000 GPS grade control systems at San Miguel providing cut and fill information to operators 24 hours a day. These grade control systems have allowed the San Miguel operation to increase safety, reduce costs, improve operator attitude, and better ensure environmental compliance. This article discusses both the nature of these benefits and some of the issues that had to be dealt with along the way.

Jan 1, 2002

By D. H. McCain

Through a unique partnership between the Colorado Mine Safety and Training Program (CMSTP), the Colorado Rock Products Association (CRPA) and the Higher Education and Advanced Technology (HEAT) Center, a video packed, dazzling CD-ROM training program was developed for new miners entering the aggregate industry. Why this product was developed, and why the aggregate industry, will be discussed along with the challenges faced throughout the project. Cooperation from every one involved including MSHA made this the product of which all other training materials in the mining industry will be measured against in the 21st Century. This product's versatility and wide application makes it a tool that is as critical to a mine's success as any earth moving machine. Developed with both state and federal grant moneys allows this product to be affordable to small operators and independent contractors. The quality of this two CD-ROM set rivals any commercially made CD-ROM training.

Jan 1, 2001

By James J. Kabat, James A. McDonald

Impregilo/SA Healy JV recently completed this Project using the first slurry shield TBM’s in the United States. The Project used two TBM’s to mine 18,000 feet in sands, gravels, and silty alluvial materials under the Willamette River and downtown Portland, Oregon. This paper discusses alignment and geological conditions, equipment selection and plant setup, and tunnel excavation means and methods, parameters, and results. Extensive hyperbaric operations were required and will also be discussed.

Jan 1, 2007

By Roy Woodall

Successful mineral exploration is the lifeblood of the mining industry. Contrary to what the environmental lobby would have the world believe, the industry is replacing the metals it is extracting. The reserve base has not changed significantly in 20 years (Fig. 1.) Mineral exploration is a research activity. First there is the idea, the vision or the intuitive thought. The experiments follow. These involve repeated phases of data gathering, data interpretation and concept testing through drilling. For many companies, exploration is the main investment in scientific research. Each mineral exploration experiment may involve years of costly work. Despite the improving tools of science and technology, the investment remains high-risk. Only the promise of high rewards, or desire to survive as a mining company, will stimulate the necessary commitment and level of investment. Confidence that an economic return can be achieved, confidence in the science and technology being applied and confidence in the people involved are the foundations upon which successful mineral exploration is built (Woodall, 1984). The challenges facing the explorationist in the 1990s fall into two categories: - the challenge to make the activity economic; and - the challenge to make the activity socially and, therefore, politically acceptable.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. Duerksen

Surface coal mining in West Virginia has supplied energy to the eastern coast of the United States for over a century. The coal mining industry has been forced to adapt as societal demands regarding health, safety, and environmental impacts have changed with time. More recent pressure has called for another iteration of change: long-term post-mining sustainability. The research presented in this paper investigates one potential solution?or component of a solution?to improve mining sustainability in Appalachia: post-mining wind power. This paper intends to demonstrate and explain the feasibility of synergistic mine closure and wind development. Wind conditions at three reclaimed mine sites in West Virginia were monitored in order to develop representative case studies for post-mining wind power. This paper contains a summary of the literature consulted to plan the site assessments, the methodology employed to execute them, the analysis steps undertaken to derive conclusions, and a discussion of all findings. This research has found that significant cost savings can be yielded from synergistic mine closure and wind development, as compared to greenfield wind development. Though wind conditions themselves remain the primary driver for site feasibility, post-mining wind power is a practice with significant promise for improving project economics, contributing to renewable energy development, enhancing company-community relations, providing local employment opportunities, and exemplifying sustainable business practices in Appalachia.

Jan 1, 2012

By R. G. Benson, P. R. Wotruba, K. W. Schmidt

Introduction The Fortitude deposit is located in Nevada's Battle Mountain mining district in the central Great Basin region of the Basin and Range province of the western US. The deposit is at Copper Canyon in the southernmost portion of the district, about 19 km (12 miles) southwest of Battle Mountain (Fig. 1). Mining activity in the district began in 1866 (Roberts and Arnold, 1965). Base and precious metals were mined by underground methods intermittently until 1955. Placer gold was first discovered at Copper Canyon in 1912. Moderate scale dredging of alluvial gravel at the mouth of Copper Canyon was conducted by the Natomas Co. from 1944 to 1955 (Johnson, 1973). In 1967, Duval Corp. began large scale open-pit copper mining. (Sayers, Tippett, and Fields, 1968). Copper prices decreased and precious metals prices increased in the mid-1970s so Duval's exploration efforts at Copper Canyon shifted to precious metals. These exploration efforts resulted in the discovery of the Tomboy-Minnie deposits and shortly afterward, the Northeast Extension deposit at Copper Canyon (Blake, Wotruba, and Theodore, 1984; Fig. 2). The Fortitude deposit was discovered in late 1980, after Duval had proceeded with precious metals production at Copper Canyon. Converting the existing plant facilities at Copper Canyon to a precious metals recovery system was completed in 1978 (Jackson, 1982). Production from the Tomboy-Minnie deposits began in early 1979. Precious metals production moved to the Northeast Extension deposit in 1982. In late 1984, after three years of preproduction stripping and mining of the Upper Fortitude ore zone, production from the higher grade Lower Fortitude ore zone began. Currently, Battle Mountain Gold Co. operates the Fortitude deposit. Production from the Battle Mountain mining district before 1967 included 4.6 t (150,000 oz) of gold, 65.3 t (2.1 million oz) of silver, 13.6 kt (15,000 st) of copper, 4.5 kt (5,000 st) of lead, and 13.6 kt (15,000 st) of zinc (Roberts and Arnold, 1965). At the time of Duval's 1967 start-up, ore reserves at Copper Canyon included 12.6 Mt (14 million st) in the East ore body and another 3.6 Mt (4 million st) in the West ore body. Both had average grades of 0.79% copper, 16.1 g/t (0.47 oz per st) silver and 0.86 g/t (0.025 oz per st) gold (Blake et al., 1984). The Tomboy-Minnie deposits collectively contained 3.5 Mt (3.9 million st) of ore grading 3.09 g/t (0.09 oz per st) gold and 9.6 g/t (0.28 oz per st) silver. The Northeast Extension reserves were identified as 1.4 Mt (1.5 million st) of ore with an average grade of 2.9 g/t (0.085 oz per st) gold and 5.1 g/t (0.15 oz per st) silver. Initial total reserve estimates for the Fortitude deposit were 14.5 Mt (16 million st) grading 5.14 g/t (0.15 oz per st) gold and 29.8 g/t (0.87 oz per st) silver (Jackson, 1982). Therefore, before large scale mining, the Copper Canyon area contained a minimum of 102.6 t (3.3 million oz) of gold and 541 t (17.4 million oz) of silver as mineable reserves. The Fortitude deposit reserves as of Jan. 1, 1985 were 10.6 Mt (11 million st) grading at 5.28 g/t (0.154 oz per st) gold and 28.5 g/t (0.83 oz per st) silver. Currently, the company is producing 6.8 t (220,000 oz) of gold and significant amounts of

Jan 7, 1986

By R. R. Oder, R. E. Jamison, E. D. Brandner

This paper presents preliminary test results obtained with a 0.38 kg/s (3000 lb-hr) beta prototype MagMill™. In processing Upper Freeport coal the beta prototype recovered 82% of the weight of the feed and 91% of the heat content while reducing the potential emissions of sulfur, kgSO2/GJ(lbSO2/MBtu), by 61%. Pyritic sulfur in the MagMill™ product was reduced by 78% compared to that in the feed. For all runs, the mill product was controlled between 70 to 80% finer than 74 µ particle size. Recoveries of mercury, arsenic, and selenium ranged from 35 to 45% of that in the feed. Power draw was reduced by 26% and mill throughput was increased by 9% compared to the pulverizer operating with no magnetic separator attached.

Jan 1, 2000

By Steve Jones

Minor subsidence damage to the Burgettstown Junior-Senior High School building and grounds near Burgettstown, Washington County, Pennsylvania, prompted an investigation of the site in early 1985 by the Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources. The investigation determined that subsidence over an abandoned coal mine was occurring and that additional damaging subsidence would occur if reclamation measures were not taken. A Pittsburgh Coal Seam Mine which was abandoned in the 1920's underlies the school at a depth of sixty-five (65) feet. This sixty-five foot section is comprised of five (5) feet of unconsolidated overburden and sixty (60) feet of thinly bedded, highly fractured shale. Approximately five and one-half (5-1/2) feet of Pittsburgh Coal was extracted at the school site. A thin shale binder and one (1) to one and one-half (1-1/2) feet of roof coal were left in place. Within the Contractor's Underground Working Area (See Figure 1) approximately thirty (30) percent of the coal was extracted. It appears that the mine was just being developed in the vicinity of the school when it was abandoned for no known reason. Other nearby portions of the mine show extraction approaching sixty-five (65) percent.

Jan 1, 1986

By Christopher J. Bise

INTRODUCTION The transportation of men, supplies, and mined material from an underground operation is the connecting link between the mine plant and the surface plant. Unless the mine is accessed by a drift or adit, some form of hoisting system is necessary for slopes or shafts. This chapter will deal with the selection of wire ropes and hoists, two of the most important consider¬ations when designing a hoisting system for an under¬ground mine. WIRE ROPES General A wire rope is designed to transmit forces longitudi¬nally along its axis. Wire rope is used in a variety of mining applications because of its flexibility, high ten¬sile strength, and dependability. Shaft hoisting ropes and principal slope haulage ropes are usually custom-¬built; however, proper rope selection for slushers, car spotters, etc. should not be overlooked. Wire ropes for shafts and slopes, since they represent the life line for the mines, should be of the very highest quality improved plow steel. This quality is necessary to deal with the conditions of loading, winding, vibration, abrasion, and corrosion. Tables I and 2 display the specifications for the typical wire ropes used for mine haulage applications. The 6 x 19-class haulage rope is used for most hoisting where abrasion is not critical. On the other hand, where abrasion is critical, such as a slope application, 6 X 7-class haulage ropes are preferred. For other mining applications, manufactur¬ers' handbooks should be consulted. Selection The selection of a wire rope for a mining situation consists of simply applying appropriate safety factors to a calculated maximum rope pull and comparing the result to the listed breaking strength of the rope under consideration. Table 3 can be used for determin¬ing the minimum factors of safety for wire ropes. To determine the maximum rope pull, the following quantities must be known: the rope weight in pounds (x), the conveyance weight in pounds (y), and the weight in pounds of the load in the conveyance (z). These values are used to calculate the load due to gravity, the load due to conveyance friction, and the load due to rope friction. When these loads are added together, as shown in Eq. 1, the maximum (static) rope pull (RPS) can be derived:

Jan 1, 1986

By A. B. Cecala

Video technology coupled with data logging exposure monitors have been used to evaluate worker exposure to different types of contaminants. However, previous application of this technology used a stationary video camera to record the worker?s activity while the worker wore some type of contaminant monitor. These techniques are not applicable to mobile workers in the mining industry because of their need to move around the operation while performing their duties and tasks. The Helmet-CAM is a recently developed exposure assessment tool that integrates a person-wearable video recorder with a data logging dust monitor that are worn by a miner in a backpack, safety belt, or safety vest to identify areas or job tasks of elevated exposure. After a miner performs his or her job while wearing the unit, the video and dust exposure data files are downloaded to a computer and then merged together through a NIOSH-developed computer software program called EVADE (Enhanced Video Analysis of Dust Exposure). By providing synchronized playback of the merged video footage and dust exposure data, the EVADE software allows for the assessment and identification of key work areas and processes, as well as work tasks that significantly impact a worker?s personal respirable dust exposure. The Helmet-CAM technology has been tested at a number of metal/nonmetal mining operations and has proven to be a very valuable assessment tool. Mining companies wishing to use this technique can purchase a commercially available video camera and an instantaneous dust monitor to obtain the necessary data, and the NIOSH-developed EVADE software will be available for download at no cost on the NIOSH website.

Feb 27, 2013

By Franklin J. Stermole

L. Alan Weakly, member SME, is a senior staff engineer, Exxon Co. Weakly chaired a Mining Engineering committee formed to solicit materials for six planned "personal skills" articles, to be used in ME this year. What follows are Weakly's introductory comments to the series. Upon graduation from college several years ago, I thought that I was sufficiently prepared to embark in my chosen profession. A short time later I realized that several years of on-the-job training was going to be required before I could use my technical training effectively. It never occurred to me that, professionally, I was seriously lacking in any other skills. My spelling could use a little upgrading, but this was not a serious deficiency. I have been very fortunate to have had two employers that recognized that their engineering professionals did lack other skills and made every effort to give them training to correct these deficiencies. The skills I am referring to are those in administration and interpersonal relationships. Most mining engineers and geologists receive very little, if any, college training in these areas. In addition, many companies do not provide this training and many mining engineers and geologists are unaware of their deficiencies. It is for this reason the subject of personal skills development is being introduced in Mining Engineering. The mining engineer or geologist can pursue one of two basic career directions, managerial or technical. In today's technically sophisticated society and highly competitive business climate, both orientations require administrative and interpersonal skills. Most of us are technically qualified and we continue to upgrade our technical skills. But many studies indicate that we, as a group, are significantly weaker in administrative and interpersonal skills than other professional groups. In addition, these studies indicate that engineers, in general, take longer to reach managerial levels and fewer do so. This series in Mining Engineering, then, should help readers strengthen and broaden their professional capabilities. In all industries, including mining and petroleum, economic analysis of potential investment projects is done to select the projects that will give maximum future value from the investment of available capital. Rather than looking directly at the future values to be generated by investing capital in alternate ways for economic decisions, evaluators usually use either rate of return, present value, annual value, a profit to investment ratio, or various break even analysis results to reach economic analysis decisions in evaluating alternative investments. Alternative economic evaluation techniques are used in industry to properly analyze the economic potential of various investment projects. "Discounted Cash Flow" analysis is the phrase commonly used to describe these techniques. Whether you want to analyze projects in mineral, petroleum, real estate, refining, pipe-line transportation, or any other industry, proper application of discounted cash flow analysis techniques enables you to fairly compare the economic potential of alternative projects as well or better than you can using any other project evaluation approaches. It should be pointed out that investment analysis generally involves more than economic analysis. Financial and intangible considerations sometimes are as important or more important to investment decision-making than economic considerations. Economic analysis refers to evaluation of the profit generating potential of projects, that is selecting which alternative projects will generate maximum future value possible from available investment capital. Financial analysis, on the other hand, relates to analysis of where money is going to come from to finance various projects. Regardless of the economic potential of a project, if financial analysis indicates that we cannot finance the project, it likely will be shelved for financial reasons even though it may be economically satisfactory. Many evaluators use the terms "economic analysis" and "financial analysis" interchangeably, but this author considers that to be undesirable. Intangible analysis relates to project factors that are difficult to quantify in

Jan 2, 1984

By C. J. Newman

Before 1995, the smelting process at the Kennecott Utah Copper Corp. (KUCC) smelter consisted of Noranda reactors and Pierce-Smith converters. When considering expansion, it was decided that the existing process would not lend itself to a program geared toward processing the total output of copper precipitate and copper concentrate from KUCC mining and concentrating operations. During 1989 and 1990, several smelting options were evaluated. The final selection was the Outokumpu flash smelting process, coupled with the new Kennecott-Outokumpu flash converting technology. Facilities were designed and installed to process 1 Mt/a (1.1 million stpy) of copper concentrate, with the ability to expand to 1.2 Mt/a (1.3 million stpy). The smelter facility that used the Noranda technology was shut down in May 1995. The flash smelting furnace operation began in June with the flash converting furnace start-up a few weeks later.

Jan 1, 1999

By David Caiden, Geoffrey Fosbrook, Jaidev Sankar, Donald Phillips, Jon Hurt, Anil Parikh

This paper will cover the progress being made on Phase 1 of New York’s Second Avenue Subway line. It will include a description of construction progress on the first contract to be let, which consists of a 248 m (815 ft) long launch box, 3.9 km(2.4 miles) of TBM tunnels and a tunnel sump; the packaging strategy for the remaining work; and the progress through Final Design of the remaining packages, including the two large span rock cavern stations.

Jan 1, 2007

By W. J. Guay

Carbonaceous gold ores containing gold dispersed in sulfides are refractory to cyanidation because: (1 ) the carbonaceous materials adsorb gold during cyanidation; (2) a portion of the gold s so finely dispersed in the sulfide mineral lattice as to preclude contact with cyanide solution; and (3) a portion of the gold is chemically combined with carbonaceous material. Techniques which have been used to treat these ores are: (1) roasting or chemical oxidation to decompose sulfide and carbonaceous materials; (2) flotation to reject carbon; (3) the use of kerosene or other reagents to passivate the adsorptive carbon compounds; (4) carbon or resin in pulp; (5) flotation of a bulk concentrate which is treated by one of the above methods; and (6) the use of chelating agents which have a stronger affinity for gold than the activated carbon in the ore.

Jan 1, 1981