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By Louis J. Sousa

This Bureau of Mines report examines aggregate trends in foreign direct investment in the U.S. mining and mineral processing industries between 1977 and 1984, and provides an analysis of foreign investment in several major mineral commodity industries. In 1984, 11.1 pct of total employment in the U.S. minerals industry was at firms that were U.S. affiliates of foreign firms. In 1985, the proportion of U.S. capacity held by foreign investors in nine major mineral commodity industries was as follows: steel, 5 pct; silver, 16 pct; lead, 18 pct; aluminum, 25 pct; zinc, 26 pct ; copper, 30 pet; cement, 32: pct; gold, 44 pct; and ferroalloys, 56 pct. Almost 90 pct of the total foreign investment in the U.S. minerals industry was accounted for by eight countries-Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland, Japan, Australia, and the Republic of South Africa. The most fundamental reason behind the growth in foreign investment in the U.S. minerals industry has been that an increasing proportion of U.S. mineral firms and assets have been for safe, while foreign mineral companies have been the ones most willing and able to purchase these firms and/or their assets. mile the growth in foreign ownership in the minerals industry has not been without controversy, it has helped save jobs, reduce the minerals trade deficit, and- from the national defense perspective-maintain the Nation's overall mineral and metal self-sufficiency at reasonably high levels. In the absence of domestic buyers, foreign investors have helped to maintain a viable domestic minerals industry.

Jan 1, 1987

By Madan M. Singh

Hydraulic mining has been practiced in the United States since 1852 and many mineral commodities, such as gilsonite, phosphates, lead-zinc, silver ores and St. Peter Sandstone can be mined in this manner. In 1958, the U. S. Bureau of Mines initiated research into the mining of coal using these techniques.1-4 These early investigations were conducted in the 5000 psi pressure range. The large nozzle diameters used in this pressure range produced extremely high flow rates which created visibility problems at the coal face, and required removal of large amounts of water from the mining area. Besides, the production rates were not much better than with mechanical methods. This indicated that with higher pressures the water quantities might be reduced using the same or higher horsepowers but enhanced breakage. For this reason intensive investigation in material removal using fine water jets at extremely high pressures (50,000 psi to 100,000 psi) has been undertaken. This was not the entire reason for this contract from the Bureau of Mines, however. The contract objective is outlined later. IIT Research Institute has done pioneering work in high pressure jet development in the United States.5-8 Similar schemes have been investigated abroad. 9-13 Hydraulic mining of coal at relatively low pressures is successfully being done in the Soviet Union, Japan, Canada, and most recently, in Germany.

Jan 1, 1973

By W. M. Mark

This investigation was undertaken to develop methods to improve the quality of titanium sponge produced by the Bureau of Mines modification of the Kroll magnesium reduction process. Research revealed that by systematic elimination of detrimental impurities introduced with the raw materials and by improved handling and processing techniques, high-quality ductile titanium with a hardness of less than 110 B.h.n. (Brinell hardness number) can be produced consistently. This improvement was accomplished by helium (or argon) stripping of residual atmospheric and other dissolved gases from the titanic chloride, preliminary dehydration of crude titanium sponge, and careful regulation of the titanium tetrachloride (TiC14) feed rate to the reactors.

Jan 1, 1960

By Robert M. Becker

This report (part 3 of a five-part series) presents computer programs for evaluating moments and moment relationships of the generalized probability distributions extended or developed in parts I and 2. The principal program is for evaluating the first three moments and moment relationships of the compound-multinomial distribution for finite as well as for infinite populations. This is the generalized distribution for sampling to some amount of items per sample. Another program is for evaluating the first four moments, the moments of the mean, and the moment relationships of the multinomial and generalized hypergeometric distributions. This is a general moment program in sampling to some number of items per sample or for sampling to some number of samples. This program will accept either ungrouped data, frequency data, or probability data.

Jan 1, 1965

By Thomas Fraser, E. A. Holbrook

The data in this bulletin were obtained during an investigation of screening practice by the University of Illinois engineering experiment station and the United States Bureau of Mines under a cooperative agreement between them and the State of Illinois Geological Survey Division. Earlier work on this subject includes a study of the general practice of coal preparation in Illinois, made in 1914 and published in 1916/ and an investigation of Illinois coal-w.ashing methods, results of which were published in 1912 in a bulletin 2 that contained complete information on the methods then in use for sizing washed coa 1.

Jan 1, 1925

By GEORGE S. POPE

This bulletin is the third of a series a showing the results of ment purchases of coal according to specifications as to its quality and giving typical forms of proposals for supplying coal and general information relating to government coal purchases . Numerous calls for authentic information concerning the purchase of coal according to its heat value attest a growing interest in the subject. Many of the commodities of life have long been purchased according to specifications requiring chemical or physical tests , or both, to determine whether the material delivered meets the requirements , the price to be paid depending on the results of the tests . Until recent years coal consumers purchased coal merely on the statement of the dealer as to its quality , relying on his integrity and on the reputation of the mine or district from which the coal was obtained. It is surprising that the important question whether value was being received for the money expended was not sooner seriously considered . The purchase of coal by specification is an important step toward the conservation of our national mineral resources , for it results in an increased use of the lower grades of coal. The poorer coals find a market by competing with the better grades , not as to the price per ton but as to the cost of an equal number of heat units. This paper gives in detail the results of government purchases of coal for the fiscal year 1908–9 and the list of contracts with abstracts of specifications for the fiscal year 1909–10 , and summarizes the information on this subject obtained by the Survey. It is hoped that this information will promote a better understanding of the specification method of purchasing coal and furnish data valuable alike to coal dealers and coal consumers , so that equitable contracts can be more readily made.

Jan 1, 1910

By Deborah A. Kramer

An economic and technical evaluation of a proposed process to recover alumina by leaching calcined kaolinitic clay with sulfurous acid is presented in this Bureau of Mines report. After the insoluble portion of the clay has been removed by leaching, monobasic aluminum sulfite is precipitated from the pregnant leach solution by partial hydrothermal decomposition. Further heating completes the decomposition to an impure alumina hydrate. This intermediate is purified in a modified Bayer process, which includes dissolving the alumina hydrate in a caustic solution at high temperature and pressure, then decreasing the temperature and pressure to precipitate alumina trihydrate. Calcining the trihydrate produces the alumina product. A cost estimate was prepared for a plant producing 1,000 tons of alumina per day, 350 d/yr. The estimated operating cost is approximately $475 per ton of alumina. This is substantially higher than a comparable estimated operating cost for the Bayer process of $250 per ton of alumina. The proposed process does not appear economically attractive, even as a method to modify a current Bayer processing plant to use a kaolinitic clay feed. High capital costs and high energy requirements make the process prohibitively expensive.

Jan 1, 1983

By G. W. Elger

This report describes pilot-plant studies and an economic evaluation of a process developed by the Federal Bureau of Mines, Albany Metallurgy Research Center, to produce synthetic rutile from a rock-type ilmenite concentrate. In this process, ilmenite blended with coke and lime is smelted in an electric arc furnace to separate most of the iron as salable pig iron and to form a titania-enriched slag of low iron content, which is treated with oxygen and titanium pyrophosphate. The titanium oxides are converted to crystalline rutile; the phosphate glass contains most of the associated impurities. The treated slag is ground and leached with sulfuric acid to liberate rutile crystals, which are concentrated by physical methods. In pilot testing conducted to obtain data for a cost estimation, a synthesized product containing about 88 wt-pct TiO2 and less than 2 pct FeO was extracted from a rock-type ilmenite concentrate containing about 45 wt-pct TiO2. The estimated fixed capital cost (on a mid-1975 basis) of a plant producing 500 tpd of synthetic rutile is $28,290,100. Based on 330 operating days per year, the estimated operating cost for this process is $351 per ton of synthetic rutile. The estimated selling price of synthetic rutile made from rock-type ilmenite is $344 per ton, based on a credit of $160 per ton of pig iron and a 20 pct interest rate of return on investment after taxes.

Jan 1, 1976

By C. E. Brechtel

This project describes the design and testing of large face ventilation systems for oil shale mining. A design data base was generated by reviewing general industry practice, oil shale industry planning, and technical literature. Conceptual designs for seven different systems were developed and evaluated for suitability. A large, free-standing, jet fan and reversible fan with rigid duct were selected for fabrication and testing. The two systems were field tested in a dead-end heading 55 ft wide by 30 ft high and 320 ft long. System performance was optimized using measurements of air flow direction and air velocity. Total system performance was then measured using SF6 tracer gas released to simulate blast fumes, hot diesel exhaust, methane layering and methane from a blasted muckpile. Field testing indicated that both systems delivered similar performance. The jet fan offered some clear advantages because of its mobility, ease of oper-ation and lower power requirement. It also offered some functional advantages in ventilating for methane because of it high average velocity.

Jan 1, 1985

The United States has not begun commercial operations to tap its largest poten-tial sources of oil supply - oil shale and coal. The reason is that domestic petrol-eum has been plentiful in the past and liquid products probably could be produced from it at the lowest cost. In view of the ever-increasing need for petroleum in the United States, the critical international situation threatening foreign supplies, the growing demands for steel, and the heavy costs to industry of constantly discovering and developing new oil fields, it is believed that the prompt development of a synthetic fuel industry based on oil shale and coal is not only requisite to safeguard our oil supply but is an economically sound course for the foreseeable future. To neglect its development is to close our eyes and minds to our own resources at a time when they are needed critically. It also is apparent now that neither the Government nor industry would be taking any considerable economic risk in starting the initial plants, especially as measured against their potential value in meeting critical oil and chemical demands and in building a new industry in the West.

Jan 1, 1951

By W. F. M. GOSS

The locomotives in service on the railroads of this country consume more than one-fifth of the total coal production of the United States. The amount is so large that any small saving that can be made effective in locomotive practice at once becomes an important factor in conserving the fuel supply of the nation. For this reason the United States Geological Survey gave attEmtion to the special problems of combustion in locomotive boilers. It approached this task from several different directions. The facts presented herewith constitute one series of results. In the fall of 1906 the locomotive-testing laboratory of Purdue University, at Lafayette, Ind., entered on a series of tests, one purpose of which was to determine in precise terms the degree of efficiency with which a modern high-class American locomotive utilizes the heat energy of the fuel supplied to it. The general interest in the subject, the elaborate plans which had been formulated for conducting the work, and the substantial character of the support which had been pledged to maintain it justified the Geological Survey in aiding the investigation. a The cooperation of the Survey consisted in detailing experts to assist the regular staff of the laboratory in the chemical and calorific work of the tests. These experts, working under the general supervision of the director of the Purdue laboratory, became responsible for the sampling of smoke-box gases, of the fuel used, of the cinders caught in the front end, of the sparks discharged by the stack, and of the refuse caught in the ash pan. The gas analyses were made by them at the university laboratory. The analyses of all solid samples and the calorific tests of the fuels were made at the government fuel-testing plant at St. Louis. The representatives of the Survey were not concerned with other phases of the work.

Jan 1, 1911

By A. J. Kraemer

This report on the physical and chemical properties of crude oils of California is one of a series on the producing districts of the United States. It includes a short discussion of results, tabulated data, and individual analyses of California crudes. Analyses of crude oils from the fields of Fresno, Kern, Los Angeles, Orange, and Ventura Counties have been published in Serials 25952 and 26083. The analyses reported in this paper corer samples that were obtained subsequent to the publication of Serials 2535 and 2608. The samples were obtained by members of the San Francisco office of the Bureau of Mines. The collecting of samples was facilitated by the courtesy of representatives of oil companies in California.

Jan 1, 1927

By William H. Waggaman

The United States not only is the largest producer of phosphate rock but also manufactures and consumes greater quantities of phosphate products than any other country. New and expanding uses will increase even further the demand for this basic raw material. Only a small proportion of the total quantity of phosphate rock mined and marketed is consumed directly in a raw or unprocessed state; the vast bulk is chemically treated and converted into [ertilizer] and a wide variety of finished products that play a vital role in [r] national economy. Three fundamental methods are employed in decomposing phosphate rock. 1. Reduction by carbon at high temperatures. 2. Treatment with one or more acids. 3. Calcination or fusion with silica, sodium salts, magnesium minerals, or small quantities of phosphoric acid.

Jan 1, 1960

By J. W. Thompson

CONSTRUCTION OF STATUTE-SALE BY ENTRYMAN. The timber and stone act (20 Stat., 89) does not forbid an entryman from alienating his interest in his claim; but the act makes illegal any prior agreement by which the entryman acts for another in the purchase. Worden v. United States, 204Fed., 1, p. 4, April, 1913. ASSUMPTION OF DEBT BY GRANTEE-LIABILITY TO CREDITOR OF GRANTOR. A grantee of a mine who agrees to pay the grantor's debts in part payment of the purchase price of the mines becomes to that extent the principal debtor, and the grantor becomes the surety, and the grantor's creditor may in equity enforce his claim against the grantee of the mine, and the grantor in such a case is not a necessary party. Silver King Coalition Mines Co. v. Silver King Consolidated Mining Co., 204Fed., 166, p. 169, April, 1913. RIGHT OF COTENANT TO MINE AND SELL. A cotentant in exclusive possession' of mining property who extracts and sells ore is entitled to charge against the proceeds of the sale the reasonable and necessary expense of its extraction and marketing, as in such case the cotenant is not a trespasser.

Jan 1, 1914

By J. G. Kirby

The number of petroleum refineries in the United States continued to decline during 1954, and according to the Bureau of Mines annual survey there were 326 refineries with a total daily throughput capacity of 8,420,630 barrels, as of January 1, 1955. The increase in capacity for the year was 413,733 barrels daily, while the number of refineries declined 11. The capacity of the average refinery to process crude oil increased during 1954 from 23,759 barrels daily to 25,830. Breaking down the crude-oil capacity increase, by refining districts; 32 percent was installed at refin¬eries located in the Texas Gulf Coast district, 25 percent in the East Coast district, and 13 percent in both the Louisiana Gulf Coast and the California districts. The Appalachian No. 1, Texas Inland, and New Mexico refining districts reported declines in capacity during the year. Additional crude-oil capacity under construction, January 1, 1955, totaled 146,800 barrels daily. Included in this total are 4 new refineries, 1 each in California, Minnesota, New Mexico, and Washington. In addition to the' new facilities, equipment producing 1.49,550 barrels daily is being replaced.

Jan 1, 1955

By R. F. Chaiken

The Bureau of Mines has conducted a study of mine fires in the Anthracite Region of Pennsylvania to determine the most effective approaches to fire control in this area. The problems involved in controlling an anthracite fire include the geological and mining conditions in this area, the propagation characteristics of anthracite, the fire control methods available, the hazards associated with these fires, and the mar-ginal effectiveness of past fire control projects. From this genecal background, fire control options were discussed as they apply in ISBO to the Centralia mine fire. Probable effectiveness, feasibility, and costs were assessedv The options evaluated include four excavation plans, flooding, hydraulic flushing, water curtain isolation, mining to construct an underground carrier, burnout control, and relocation of the community. The most advantageous from a technical viewpoint is an excavation method combining complete excavation of the fire zone within the borough with trenching to confine the remaining fire. It appears that for many anthracite fires, as for the Centralia mine fire, there are no available control measures that have a moderate cost, are proven effective, and produce minimal disruption on the surface.

Jan 1, 1983

By William T. Boyd

Foreign mining publications describing successful hydraulic mining installations, and successful domestic hydraulic mining in a gilsonite bed, have prompted the Federal Bureau of Mines to conduct a literature survey of foreign publications to determine if the hydraulic mining method can be applied to domestic coal mining. Most foreign publications do not give detailed data about the water pressures, water capacities, and production and manpower requirements for successful hydraulic mining, However, they do provide enough general data on mining conditions, manpower, and equipment used to show that conditions in many bituminous coal deposits in the United States may be favorable for economical coal extraction, using high-pressure water jets. Therefore, the Bureau proposes to conduct a field investigation to determine the most appropriate natural conditions, water pressures, and equipment for successful hydraulic mining of coal beds in the United States with variable dip, thickness, and hardness. In the past, technical personnel reviewing foreign mining reports assumed that a steeply pitching coal bed was necessary for successful hydraulic mining. Although the structure of the coal bed may be a factor in gaining assistance from overburden pressures or help in an integrated hydraulic mining and transportation system, the coal is broken mainly by the action of high-pressure, water-penetrating cracks, fissures, or cleats; therefore, the slope of the coal bed is not necessarily a determining factor in hydraulic mining.

Jan 1, 1959

The Bureau of Mines is responsible for a broad spectrum of programs for meeting the diverse and changing mineral resource needs of the Nation. These programs are managed by the Director and two Deputy Directors, who formulate general policy and program direction from the Washington, D.C., headquarters. A senior advisory staff, consisting of the Chief Staff Officer, Chief Scientist, and Chief Mining Engineer, provides advice and consultation to the Director on a wide range of scientific and technical matters and acts on behalf of the Director to maintain liaisons with other government agencies, mineral industries, and professional societies. Bureau program activities are classified into two major functions: (1) Developing new and improved technology that will make the production and processing of minerals more efficient, safer and more healthful for mineral workers and the public, and more compatible with a quality environment.

Jan 1, 1979

By W. P. Diamond

The Bureau of Mines has been involved in the drilling of vertical, horizontal, and directional coalbed gas drainage boreholes for mine safety since 1964. In that time, boreholes have been drilled in most of the major coal regions of the United States under a wide variety of geologic conditions. Many of the geologic conditions that occur in the coal measures are detrimental to gas drainage; others may be beneficial. Analytical techniques to determine the gas content of coal samples and evaluate regional trends of gas distribution have been developed. Drilling techniques that maximize the acquisition of coalbed gas data and geologic information have been determined. Although some of the geologic factors influencing the placement and potential success of coalbed gas drainage boreholes have been reported in papers on individual projects, a complete, systematic compilation has not previously been available. The objective of this paper is to pro- vide information on specific geologic factors that should be considered prior to, during, and after the drilling of coalbed gas drainage bore-holes. Many of the commonsense considerations that have been learned through many years of Bureau of Mines experience, but have generally not been reported formally, are included for those who may be considering coalbed gas drainage drilling for the first time, or who have not had the opportunity to encounter a substantial number of geologic situations.

Jan 1, 1982

By Robert Alfred

This paper is one of a aeries being published by the Federal Bureau of Mines on methods and practices used in mining and preparing crushed stone for market. Performance, in terms of units of work or tons produced per machine and per operator man-hour, is given whenever that information can be obtained. Direct operating costs are useful for comparing different methods and are included if available. In addition to descriptions of equipment and methods used the Bureau considered it desirable to discuss the engineering reasons for the choices that have been made, This paper is particularly concerned with the operation of the Liberty quarry and plant of the Campbell Limestone Co, The plant is in Pickens County, adjacent to the main line of the Southern Railway, and is about 18 miles west of Greenville, S, C. Access also is available by United States Highway No, 123, The company's main offices are at Knoxville, Tenn.

Jan 1, 1958