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The value of U.S. mineral raw material output reached a record $63.1 billion in 1975. This high exceeded the 1974 value of $55.2 billion by 14 percent. Among the three major mineral categories -fuels, metals, and nonmetals -only fuels showed an increase in value. Both the metal and nonmetal categories showed declines in value. The significance of this nearly $63 billion mineral output can be noted in the fact that it is the basis for the subsequent production of over $270 billion a year in energy and processed materials. Of the 78 individual mineral commodities included in these 1975 totals, only 17 registered gains in output, while 45 registered value increases, reflecting higher prices.

Jan 1, 1976

By Michael A. Anuta

This report describes the potential for utilization of satellite observations for remote sensing of mine waste disposal areas. Four study sites consisting of metal and nonmetal mining areas in different climatic and physiographic regions of contigous United States were used in this investigation. The mine waste disposal sites consisted of mining of phosphates in Florida, copper in Arizona, silver in Idaho, and coal in West Virginia. Landsat satellite multispectral scanner observations were used together with aerial photographs, ground surveys, U.S. Geological Survey maps, and other ancillary information. Landsat digital data were categorized using automated supervised classification algorithms and an image analysis system. Detailed description of automated classification techniques employed and the accuracy attained is provided together with the results of manual interpretations. The inventory of areas distrubed for phosphate mining and a change detection investigation for-Polk County Florida were also undertaken during this study.

Jan 1, 1982

By Albert L. Toenges

The introduction of mechanized mining in coal mines, which has speeded loading, has emphasized the importance of efficient underground transportation systems. The purpose of this investigation is to study and analyze various systems now in use, and to derive conclusions therefrom. This report may be helpful to operators who are planning new systems of transportation or who are revising present systems to increase their efficiency. This paper is the first of a series on this subject and des¬cribes some systems of transportation `utilizing rail haulage, ACKNOWLEDGMENT The information used in preparing this report was obtained through the courtesy and cooperation of the officials of the companies whose mines were studied. The descriptions of the transportation systems at the mines included herein have been checked for accuracy, and publication of the data has been approved by the executives of the several operating companies.

Jan 1, 1940

By Scott A. Stebbins

This Bureau of Mines publication presents a method for estimating capital and operating costs associated with the exploration, mining, and processing of placer deposits. To ensure representative cost estimates, operational parameters for placering equipment and basic principles of placer mining techniques are detailed.

Jan 1, 1987

By J. S. Coffman

Wyoming is estimated to have more than 700 million tons and Utah more than 2.5 billion tons of +10 percent P2O6 phosphate rock considered to have some future economic potential. In Wyoming, the +24 and +18 percent P205 rock potential resources total nearly 250 and 450 million tons, respectively. In Utah, the +31, +24, and +18 percent rock total approximately 33 million, 222 million, and 2.2 billion tons, respectively. These resources are all located above the local drainage levels and do not include latent resources. All of the mining and beneficiation of phosphate rock in the two States is done by San Francisco Chemical Co. The facilities include open pit mines at Vernal, Utah, and Leefe, Wyo.; an underground mine in the Crawford Mountains, Utah, and beneficiation plants at Leefe and Vernal. One of the principal markets for the phosphate rock is Western Phosphates, Inc., fertilizer plant at Garfield, Utah. Recent exploration and development has been under-taken by different companies in the Southeastern Wind River Range, Sublette Range, and Crawford Mountains. The facilities at Leefe and Vernal are in the process of expansion. Some of the areas of western Wyoming contain vast quantities of phosphate rock in minable units, but, because of their remote location, are classed as latent areas. In these areas, there are estimated to be about 700 million, 2 billion, and 3 billion tons of phosphate rock in the +24, +18, and +10 percent P205 grade classes, respectively. The Snake River Range of Idaho and Wyoming is also estimated to contain roughly 21, 106, 177, and 214 million tons of potential resources in the +31, +24, +18, and +10 grade categories, respectively. This area also contains a large amount of latent rock in the more remote areas.

Jan 1, 1967

By C. H. Johnson

The Big Jim mine of the United Eastern Mining Co. is at Oatman, Mohave County, Ariz. Oatman is in the foothills on the western side of the Black Mountains, at an elevation of about 3,000 feet. It is on a paved highway about 30 miles west of Kingman, the principal distributing; center for mining supplies in the district, and 25 miles from Topock, en the Colorado River. Both latter towns are stations on the Santa Fe Railroad; Oatman has no roil connection. Mining conditions are typical of western Arizona; water is scarce, no mine timber is available locally, and the winters arc mild and the summers hot. The supply of a killed labor is usually adequate, but in 1933-34 it w not more than sufficient for the restricted operations. Wages have been $4.00 to $4.50 for miners. Electric power was supplied from Kingman and cost about 2.6 cents per kilowatt-hour.

Jan 1, 1935

By Albert L. Toenges

ALMOST all of the coal used for metallurgical purposes west of the Continental Divide is ruined from the Lower Sunnyside bed in Carbon County, Utah. Coke produced from Lower Sunnyside coal and used in western steel plants is weaker structurally than coke used elsewhere in this country. For this reason, western coal operators and steel manufacturers are anxious to develop new areas of coking coal of better quality than the coal produced from the Sunnyside bed. Early in the war, the Bureau of Mines undertook an intensive investigation of western coals to (a) develop additional reserves of coking coal to supplement proved reserves in the Sunnyside bed and (b) develop, if possible, reserves of coal with coking qualities superior to Lower Sunnyside coal. Results of investigations in the Kemmerer district, Wyoming,9 and in the Minnesota Creek area, Gunnison County, Colo.,10 have been published.

Jan 1, 1952

By L. S. Harner

This paper which describes the milling practice at the Golden Cycle mill is one of a series of similar papers being prepared by the United States Bureau of Mines. The mill of the Golden Cycle Corporation, formerly known as the Golden Cycle Mining and Reduction Co., is located at Colorado Springs, Colorado, and has been operated since 1907. It is now and has been from its inception almost exclusively a custom mill.

Jan 1, 1933

By Donald Giroux

This report documents the design, fabrication, testing, and coal mine demonstration of a hopper-feeder-bolter during a four-phase program for the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The machine was designed to increase productivity and safety in under-ground room-and-pillar mining. It performed well as a hopper-feeder for continuous haulage during a coal mine demonstration. Testing in a simulated mine showed that the machine also has good roof bolting capability.

Jan 1, 1987

By F. S. Wartman

The presence of magnetite, either dissolved or suspended as solid crystals, in slags from the copper reverberatory furnace is a frequently mentioned cause of an abnormally high copper content in those slags. The presence of this oxide in the slag is to be expected, since it is present in appreciable amounts in both converter slag and roaster calcine which comprise a considerable proportion of the furnace feed. Magnetite is also a product of some of the furnace reactions. These abnormal losses result in several ways. Magnetite is supposed to favor the formation and retention of copper ferrite, in the slag. Crystals of solid magnetite suspended in the slag are objectionable-because they make the slag less fluid and often entrap globules of matte. Frequently these crystals settle into a layer at the slab-matte interface which may have such mechanical strength as to create a false bottom and interfere with furnace operation by preventing separation of matte from slag. Magnetite may, by crystallizing on the furnace bottom, build the bottom to such a level that the furnace can no longer be operated.

Jan 1, 1928

By C. H. Riggs

This report of a petroleum-engineering study of the Flat Rock oil field, Osage County, Okla., describes the geology, reviews the production history, and estimates remaining oil reserves. The Flat Rock field in the southeastern corner of Osage County approximately 6 miles northwest of Tulsa. Okla., was discovered in November 1904. The field was one of the first of many Bartlesville-sand fields developed in eastern Osage County during the early part of the 20th century. Although substantial oil reserves remain in the pressure depleted sands in some parts of the field, their economic recovery by water flooding will require careful consideration of the many factors involved.

Jan 1, 1954

By S. J. Hussey

Since the discovery in 1935 by Adams and Holmes that certain synthetic resins exhibit ion-exchange properties, many applications of the ion-exchange process have been made. There are two general types of ion-exchange resins. Cation exchange resins adsorb cations from solution, and these in turn may be replaced by other cations adsorbed under certain conditions. 'Anion exchange resins adsorb acids from solution, and the anion of the acid may then be replaced by other anions. It is reported, however, that certain anion exchange resins have a low capacity for anions of weak acids without the necessity of acid adsorption either directly or as an intermediate step. The adsorbed ions may then be removed from the resins by elution with an appropriate solution, and the resin is prepared for the next adsorption cycle by regeneration with another solution. Sometimes one solution, is used to simultaneously perform the functions of elution and regeneration. The first and probably the largest application is in the field of water purification. Other applications have been made in the production of high-quality foods for human consumption, in the recovery of valuable substances from solutions, in the separation or fractionation of electrolytes, and in several other fields, each of which has its specific applications, variations, and possibilities. Ion exchange resins also have been highly useful in perfecting techniques of laboratory analysis and research.4/, 5/, 6/

Jan 1, 1948

By D. Bienstock

The use of alkalized alumina in removing sulfur dioxide from a coal-combustion flue gas at 625° F was investigated on a pilot plant scale. The absorber was 26 feet long and 1.6 inches ED. Counter-current gas-solids flow at gas velocities of 8 to 15 ft/sec in the presence and absence of baffles, as well as solids entrainment at gas velocities of 20 to 23 ft/sec with solids recycle, were employed. The spent absorbent as regenerated as fixed bed with the reducing gases--reformed natural .7.7d hydrogen. Of absorption-regeneration were successful completed using the alkalized alumina rolled into spherical granules 10 to 16 mesh. There was no loss in activity of absorbent toward SO2 with a modest attrition equivalent to 0.l percent of the solids feed. Supporting studies were conducted on the effect of the sodium content in the absorbent, the composition of the reducing gas, thermal treatment to increase absorbent hardness, and removal of absorbed chlorine from the absorbent. A mathematical model was formulated to describe the removal of SO2 by alkalized aluminum from fixed and falling beds.

Jan 1, 1967

By D. O. Hamiltion

The ISMS program provided for the development and demonstration of equipment modifications in both conventional and continuous coal mining systems. This report describes activities during the demonstration of the conventional equipment and includes machine performance, results of data gathering, system evaluation, and recommendations for implementing improvements.

Jan 1, 1976

By T. M. Ruff

A prototype mucking machine designed to operate in narrow-vein stopes was developed by Foster- Miller, Inc., Waltham, MA, under contract with the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The machine, called a compact loader-trammer, or minimucker, was designed to replace slusher muckers in narrow-vein underground mines. The minimucker is a six-wheel-drive, skid-steered, load-haul-dump (LHD) machine that loads muck at the front with a novel slide-bucket system and ejects it out the rear so that the machine does not have to be turned around. To correct deficiencies of the tether-remote-control system, a computer-based, radio-remote-control system was retrofitted to the minimucker. Initial tests indicated a need to assist the operator in guiding the machine in narrow stopes. An automatic guidance system that used ultrasonic ranging sensors and a wall-following algorithm was installed. Additional tests in a simulated test stope showed that these changes improved the operation of the minimucker. The design and functions of the minimucker and its computer-based, remote-control system are reviewed, and an ultrasonic-sensor-based guidance system is described.

Jan 1, 1992

By C. P. Mishra

The Bureau of Mines investigated the availability of mercury from 22 deposits in market economy countries. The 15 significant deposits evaluated have demonstrated resources of approximately 25 million metric tons of ore containing 5.3 million flasks of mercury and account for more than 85 pct of the demonstrated resources for market economy countries. Using data gathered as part of its Minerals Availability Program, the Bureau determined the mercury production potential of each deposit. At a January 1984 mercury market price of $300 per flask, the deposits evaluated could economically produce an estimated 2.5 million flasks of mercury from six mines operating at the time of this study; no mercury is available at this price from nonproducing operations. At $600 per flask, approximately 4.5 million flasks of mercury are available. For production costs up to $300 per flask, operating mines could supply mercury at the current production rate of 114,000 flasks per year until 1988, when the amount of mercury available from these deposits would decrease. This decline could be offset by the development of resources currently reported at the identified level (17 million flasks) at much higher production costs.

Jan 1, 1985

By Paul M. Tyler

One by one new metals come to share the burden of modern industry. Long before the Christian era potters and glass workers employed fine and costly blue pigments that contained cobalt. Cobalt blue class has been found in the tombs of the Egyptians and in the ruins of Troy, and many of the colors used by the ancient Greeks and Romans contained cobalt. The ancients, however, were apparently unaware that the colors they used were caused by cobalt, and it was not until late in the 17th century that the existence of the element was recognized, Writers in the Middle Ages referred to "cobalos" as an evil spirit that haunted mines and caused trouble to the miners. Subsequently the German worms "Kobold," meaning goblin, came to be applied to any baffling mineral and particularly to minerals that resembled ores but failed to yield metal when smelted. Even to-day there is something of an air of mystery about cobalt, and a medieval cloak of secrecy still surrounds many of the metallurgical processes employed in its production. "Zaffre" was mentioned about the middle of the sixteenth century by Biringuccio, and in 1735 the metal war, first prepared by G. Brandt. To preparation of cobalt compounds, however, must have been carried on in at least a small way ever since the opening of the silver-cobalt deposits of Schneeberg in 1470. By 1790 there were 25 works engaged in the industry, rust of them located in Saxony, but the total output of these works probably did not exceed 300 tone of cobalt annually, mostly in the fore of smalt. The smalt which contained approximately 6 per cent cobalt was sold in Venice in 1520 at about 16 cents a pound. A few refineries in Holland supplied the Irish linen trade, contributed a farce amount to the Dutch linen industries, and alto provided smaller quantities for the manufactuer of litmus in Holland. A complete description of the early [histor,] of the cobalt industry in Saxony, is given by Mickle in the Deport of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario, vol. 19, 1913, pt. 2, pp. 234-251.

Jan 1, 1930

By Ludwig Schmidt

This report, the second of a series, presents the results of laboratory corrosion studies which were made in connection with a one-year test on aluminum lease tanks conducted by the United States Bureau of Mines. Part 1 of the report contains the results of the field tests. The studies were made on an oil lease in a so-called "sour district," near Borger, Tex., where free hydrogen sulphide accompanied the production of oil, gas, and salt water. Steel tanks previously used on the lease had suffered severe corrosion, because steel is inherently susceptible to attack by hydrogen sulphide. Because of the high resistivity of aluminum to the action of hydrogen sulphide, it was believed that this metal had promising possibilities as a material for the construction of lease tanks in "sour districts." The results of the one-year field test proved that aluminum lease tanks will withstand corrosion by hydrosulphide, but it as found that aluminum was susceptible to attack by salt water, which was invariably present in certain portions of the tanks, and that hydrogen sulphide accelerated this salt-water corrosion in an indirect manner, as will be explained hereinafter. In order to study corrosion conditions encountered in the tanks during the test period, a laboratory was maintained at the site of the aluminum lease tanks.

Jan 1, 1931

By Frank E. Cash

As a part of its safety program the United States Bureau of Mines has fostered the development, use, and improvement of portable electric mine lamps. Although there is still need for better illumination in mines and the replacement of open lights has been slow, improvement in electric cap lamps and increase in their use indicate one phase of recent progress toward safer and more efficient mining This report is the result of a recent survey of electric-lamp installations in the Alabama mining; district; it shows the misuse, increase in use, and relation to certain classes of accidents of these installations.

Jan 1, 1935

By BUREAU OF MINES

In 1948 the United States became a net importer of oil. Coupled with an unpre- cedented domestic production of 5,900,000 barrels daily, imports approximating 500,000 barrels made available a total supply of 6,400,000 barrels a day. Thus, by herculean effort, the oil industry was able to meet an extraordinary demand at home and, in addition, to ship abroad almost 400,00 barrels daily of petroleum and products. The country's oil position now differs greatly from that prevailing at the be- ginning of World War II. Then, actual oil production averaged about 4 million bar- rels a day, and productive capacity probably was greater than 5 million barrels a day. As the demand of the military and industrial machine grew with the rising tempo of the drive toward victory, the United States not only met its own needs but pro- duced about two-thirds of the total oil requirements of the Allied Nations, excluding Russia. As a people, we can be deeply grateful that the Nation's petroleum resources were adequate and sufficiently developed to support such a tremendous effort. Even in those critical hours when immediate needs were the paramount issues, a prudent Congress paused to contemplate the importance of an assured long-term supply of liquid fuels. From these deliberations came the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act of 1944, which authorized research and development work on new sources of oil coal, oil shale, and agricultural and forestry products. ce World War II, a civilian demand for 6 million barrels of petroleum prod- ucts has become the order of the day every day. By drilling as many as 39,000 new wells a year, the production rate has been increased enough to meet domestic require- ments by a bare margin. Some imports were necessary, however, to fill both domestic and foreign demands, and these doubtless will increase. Is this policy of exploration within the United States and the development of oil in foreign countries adequate insurance for the fulfillment of our future national needs? This question has two aspects one purely civilian and economic in character and the other significant from the standpoint of our national defense. There are now approximately 4,000 producing oil fields in this country. At first thought, it would appear that production could decline in a considerable number of these fields without materially affecting the over-all daily output. However, 48 percent of the oil comes from only 111 major fields which contain 50 percent of the total proved domestic reserves. It is apparent, then, that the flow from large fields - having proved reserves of 100 million barrels or more each must be sustained if daily production is to be kept at the present levels. Essentially, this means that new major fields must be discovered about as rapidly or perhaps more rapidly than the older ones lose productive capacity. From 1940 through 1947, only eight major fields with estimated reserves of more than 100 million barrels each, were discovered and proved - an average of one such field a year. The total estimated reserve of these eight fields was less than 1 year's supply at the present rate of use. As drilling continues, some existing fields ultimately will prove reserves larger than those now known. Without a pronounced increase in the num- ber of major discoveries, however, the prospects for increasing our present productive level are not encouraging. Any gap that appears between domestic productive capacity and demand could be filled with supplies from proved oil resources abroad. Assuming cheap pipe-line and tanker transportation to the United States, freedom from exorbitant taxes and charges

Jan 1, 1949