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By S Steffen, S Talu, J Poulsen, G Watt, A van As, J S. Ooi

The economic success of cave mining projects is significantly influenced by the secondary fragmentation size distribution of the caved orebody and making the fragmented ore available for extraction. If the cave does not propagate as predicted, it may lead to stalled cave growth and/or localised preferential caving. This can cause significant ore loss and the inclusion of excessive waste in draw columns, both of which damage the economic value of the project. Uncontrolled caving can have severe consequences for the safety and economics of mines. Such safety risks include air blasts due to the formation of excessive air gaps and damage to infrastructure due to surface subsidence. Monitoring the cave-back delivers critical feedback that is required to exert control over its propagation and reduce the likelihood of adverse consequences. Current methods for monitoring cave propagation include access through open holes, microseismic monitoring systems, time domain reflectometers and extensometers. All of these monitoring systems rely on stable holes for installation and ongoing data collection. However, cables in holes often get sheared due to ground movement in the seismogenic zone well ahead of the cave front, rendering the systems useless. To resolve this issue, Elexon Mining, with the support of Rio Tinto, developed the Networked Smart Marker system, which is based on Elexon’s Smart Marker technology. This system provides a more robust and versatile alternative to other cave monitoring systems as the data is transmitted wirelessly through rock, and thus is not vulnerable to hole shearing/dislocation experienced with current cave monitoring systems. Installations at the Argyle block cave have proven that the Networked Smart Maker system can continue to provide information on the cave-back’s location long after all conventional monitoring systems have failed. This paper summarises the findings from these installations and highlights the benefits for all geotechnical monitoring systems reliant on the stability of drill holes to remain functional.CITATION:Steffen, S, Poulsen, J, Van As, A, Talu, S, Watt, G and Ooi, J S, 2016. Wireless system for monitoring cave-back propagation, in Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp 251–256 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2016

The state of sampling practice in South African minerals industry must be appreciated in the context of the changes that the country has recently lived through. These include the entrepreneurship and investment in local mineral developments, the 'unbundling of mineral assets', the rising foreign control of South Africa's mineral assets, developments in the regulatory environment, and the training that has come to the industry through international experts. In terms of their financial contribution the five most important commodities in the South African mining industry include gold, platinum, non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals, and coal. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards form the basis for international trade in two of these commodities and have had a steadying influence on sampling practice over the years. The contribution of the minerals industry to the economic well-being of South Africa and the strong financial links between good sampling practice and minerals marketing, has acted as a driver for improved sampling practice. The state of sampling practice at mining operations of the five main commodities was found to be quite widely divergent with 'pockets of sampling excellence' in each of the commodities. The stages of mineral development at mines for each of the commodities have been described in terms of the sampling sites, sampling mechanisms, and associated problems at different stages of mineral production from exploration, through face sampling, blasthole sampling, and in-mine grade control, ore processing and handling, metallurgical subsampling, process subsampling, and subsampling in the laboratory. In each case the principal errors were identified and their potential impact on value erosion was estimated. In the final analysis it is evident that the greatest problems arise in the early stage of mineral development, and that ferrous metals and coal are particularly susceptible to loss of value through poor sampling practice. Several examples of value lost through poor sampling at the marketing stage that arise from breaching contract specifications, either in terms of grade or sizing, are described. The conclusion is that larger companies with larger ore deposits and greater human, financial, and capital resources are probably more compliant with 'best sampling practice' than smaller companies. Finally the message that equipment suppliers are sending is that business is booming and the awakened awareness of the issues around sampling practice are translating into rands and cents spent on improved sampling equipment.

Mar 1, 2010

The demands of the economy require larger manufacturing facilities using greater quantit- ies of raw materials which must be mined, handl- ed, stockpiled and recovered with efficiency and dependability. All over the world, mining com- panies, steel manufacturers, power stations and process plants are not only seeking but finding methods of increasing outputs and'reducing costs in the field of materials handling. In mining bigger continuous mining machines and shovels, larger trucks and crushers are digging and processing greater quantities of differing materials which have to be handled and shipped at rates once thought to be impossible. To implement such schemes demands the blending of a lot of diverse-equipment, mining machinery, bins, feeders, reclaimers and it is here that the belt conveyor assumes a role of ever increas- ing importance. Significant developments have taken place in the seventies with respect to conveyor belt transportation; not only in the systems but also in the components which combine to make such systems work efficiently.

Jan 1, 1976

By M Oyarzún

Direct relationships between rock texture and BWi (grindability index) have been established based on geological and metallurgical information supported by optical microscopy observations, gathered from 731 samples.Each recognised rock texture is observed to be related to a certain BWi range and, this texture is also characteristic of distinct lithological subunits (recognisable at mapping scale). Therefore, this relationship may provide an important tool for early milling in situ estimation.Since each textural type is a response to rock formation conditions, the causality of the relationship between BWi and texture is based on such conditions and, particularly, on the interfacial free energy among its components.According to the abovementioned textural features, the greater the free interfacial energy between mineral components, the greater the necessary energy required to break its grain boundaries and, consequently, the greater the necessary energy required for milling.If the textural evidence indicates that the rock was able to adjust the shape and/or size of its components – in a natural tendency of all systems to minimise energy– then the necessary energy required to break its grain boundaries will be lower.

Sep 5, 2011

By R Small, S Combrinck, R Lindsay

Maintaining your competitive edge in the growing Australian mining sector today is an arduous task. With an ever increasing demand to extract more ore, safely, complete visibility throughout the blasting cycle has become vital to any operation. To achieve this requires full two way communication with every detonator during the testing and programming cycle, as well as, inside the firing window. Concerned with an increase in the number of incidents involving mining equipment, uncovering and digging into unknown misfires on-sites across Australia, Black Star Mine made the decision to embark on the use of electronic detonators to eliminate this hazard. With this safety goal achieved, the mine set about using the added benefits of electronic detonators to improve their drill and blast processes with impressive results.CITATION:Combrinck, S, Lindsay, R and Small, R, 2012. Eliminating unidentified misfires at Xstrata ZincÆs open pits through the application of electronic detonators, in Proceedings Eighth Open Pit OperatorsÆ Conference , pp 27-30 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 18, 2012

By K Haga, G Danha, A Shibayama, L L. Godirilwe

The hydrometallurgical separation and enrichment processes provide an effective way to selectively recover metals from relatively dilute multicomponent sulfuric acid leach solutions. The multicomponent leach solution utilised in this study contained 0.3 g/L Cu, 0.34 g/L Ni, 0.13 g/L Co, and 2.96 g/L Fe, which was obtained after high-pressure oxidative acid leaching (HPOAL) of the copper-nickel smelter slag. The solvent extraction (SX), precipitation, and xanthate complexation processes were employed to recover and upgrade Cu, Ni, and Co from the leach solution. Batch SX tests were carried out using a countercurrent two-stage mixer settler extraction column, and LIX 984N (10 per cent v/v) as a copper extractant. Fundamental parameters influencing the extraction process such as pH, mixing speed, H2SO4 concentration, and organic/aqueous (O/A) phase ratio were investigated. For copper enrichment in solution, a combination of two extraction stages and two stripping stages were employed. Copper was successively separated from Fe, Ni, and Co under optimised extraction conditions (pH 2, 400 rev/min, O/A 0.25, and 20 min contacting) and stripping conditions (175 g/L H2SO4, 400 rev/min, O/A 4, and 20 min contacting). About 97 per cent of copper was extracted with low co-extraction of Fe, Ni, and Co of about 5.90 per cent, 1.47 per cent, and 2.53 per cent, correspondingly. A final Cu-rich solution containing 23 g/L Cu was obtained with a very low Fe concentration of 0.05 g/L. Additionally, for iron removal from the Ni/Co raffinate solution, more than 99 per cent of iron was precipitated at pH 4 by the addition of a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) suspension, with low co-precipitation of nickel and cobalt of around 3.68 per cent and 2.27 per cent, respectively. Furthermore, about 83.6 per cent of nickel and 99.4 per cent cobalt were co-precipitated from the solution by potassium amyl xanthate (PAX) solution at pH 6. The Ni and Co xanthate complexes were thermally decomposed and recovered as cobalt oxide (CoO) and nickel sulfide (NiS) solids.

Aug 24, 2022

By L Mariano

Three selected iron ore samples from the major bedded and channel iron deposits of Western Australia were analysed using a scratch test commonly used in the oil and gas industry. The portable commercial equipment dubbed Wombat cuts a groove on the surface of the sample with a cutter under imposed depth of cut and cutting velocity. The normal and tangential components of the force acting on the cutter are recorded with a high degree of precision (about 1N) at fine spatial resolution of about 20 measurements per millimeter.The intrinsic specific energy inferred from the scratch test measurements is found very well correlated with a classical measure of strength such as the uniaxial compressive strength, for over 300 sedimentary rock samples.The results obtained on the iron ore samples are comparable to those obtained on oil and gas sedimentary rocks. This method could provide an objective and semi-automated measurement of material strength and brittleness in iron ores that can possibly be correlated to the lump to fines ratio.

Jul 11, 2011

By J Player, P Mikula, G Sweby

A numerical modelling back-analysis exercise was carried out at a WA gold mine at which early signs of seismicity (rock noise, scatts from active faces) were becoming apparent as depth of mining increased towards the 500 m mark. Some strain bursting had occurred and it was necessary to discover what the implications of this were for greater depth. The aim of the modelling was to: 1. Establish a correlation between observed ground conditions and model predicted damage, in overstressed areas of the mine. 2. Use this correlation to forecast rock mass damage and ground control requirements for proposed future stoping panels at greater depth. Good correlation has been achieved between observed rock mass damage, and a 3D Finite-Element RS3 model, run in elastic mode. Two candidate stress field orientations were modelled. The model parameter best fitting the observations was the Strength Factor (SF), the ratio of strength/stress. The good match (correlation coefficient of 0.7) between observed and modelled suggests that the elastic approach is justified for the depth range and rock mass properties analysed. The correlation also enabled a link between observed damage and installed ground support performance. Using the linear best-fit between observed and modelled, a forecasting exercise was carried out using the same RS3 model, modified to include future stoping. The resulting damage and ground support categories were obtained from the modelled SF for each proposed stoping level. Also, a series of generic geometries was assessed to investigate the impact of varying stope face lead/lag distance, sill pillar height and stope pillar size, on ground conditions. The key finding of the generic geometries were: • Ground support schemes have been defined for the expected conditions. • All ore drives are expected to have significant damage in the backs and rehabilitation. • Lead/lag distance not to exceed 10 m. • Sill pillar/level intervals of less than 20 m require an increase in ground support scheme. • Pillar sizes for maintaining footwall and hanging wall stability should be at least 10 m × 5 m.

Nov 29, 2022

The Kiirunavaara apatite-magnetite orebody is about 4 km long and approximately 100 m thick sheet-like body, which lies roughly in a north-south direction and dips from the horizontal plane along its entire length, in towards the town of Kiruna. The origin of this orebody has been a matter of controversy, with both magmatic and hydrothermal origins proposed. Traditionally and for practical purposes this rich apatite-magnetite ore has been divided into two main types: low phosphorous ore (B-ore) and high phosphorous ore (D-ore). Further the low phosphorous ore is divided into the low alkali (B1) and the high alkali (B2) ore.

Jan 1, 2006

The effectiveness of three different types of longwall chock under the three different types of geological conditions worked recently is outlined. Some provisional analyses of the variation of chock load under the shale roof con- dition are briefly discussed and some problems and solutions of gateway and road- head support outlined.

Jan 1, 1974

By J Kuva, M Parian, B I. Pålsson

One of the main factors affecting the suitability of an ore for autogenous grinding is the ore’s competency, ie providing enough critical stones for the grinding process. Several experimental test routines exist and are used for assessing the viability of the ore for autogenous grinding. However, very little attention is given to the generation of fatigue in large stones experiencing repeated shocks in the mill. To investigate this, large pebbles sampled from an industrial autogenous grinding mill running hard and soft ores were categorised based on the grinding energy. From the pebbles, small drill core samples were prepared and went through a series of fatigue cycle tests. Both hard and soft ores showed similar average resistance to failure in compression tests, but the hard ore had a consistent resistance with lower variations. The cores were scanned by XCT before and in-between fatigue tests at the highest reachable resolution, 1.5 µm voxel size. The outcome showed that a higher number of micro-cracks were visible in the soft ore compared to the hard ore. The frequency of micro-crack development in the soft ore may be the reason for its lower specific grinding energy compared to the hard ore. It is obvious that for realistic conditions in an autogenous grinding mill, stones are pre-weakened by fatigue before they fracture. Therefore, shortcut methods focusing only on running tests on fresh and small samples may operate in unrealistic conditions by ignoring the fatigue phenomenon. This is even more important for ores that are on the borderline to be considered as competent for autogenous milling.

Aug 24, 2022

By T J. V Duffy, L H. D Siahaan, P G. Albert

G-ResourcesÆ Martabe Mine in North Sumatra, Indonesia, is a US$700 M world-class and world-scale operation in a country which, with a few notable smaller scale exceptions, has had no significant hard rock mining development in more than ten years.The mine was commissioned in the middle part of 2012 and poured first gold on 24 July. At full production Martabe will produce 250 000 oz/a of gold and 2 - 3 Moz/a of silver at cash costs in the lowest quartile. The mine location is on the west coast of North Sumatra, which experiences annual rainfall of 4 m with no notable dry season, adjacent to seismically active fault zones, and relatively close to a rural community of 31 000 people with no significant industrial experience.The management team has successfully forged strong links with the various government departments and levels in Jakarta, North Sumatra Province and the local Regencies; developed long-term relationships with the various community groups within the local district of Batangtoru to build a sustainable social licence; has dealt with the physical and environmental challenges presented by the project location, and has successfully raised more than US$900 M over a period of three years for the original acquisition then the development of the project.Whilst in its infancy of operation, the mine is set up to deliver a long-term sustainable future for the company, the shareholders, and the people of Batangtoru and all stakeholders generally. The quality of the project execution and commitment by the company will ensure that maximum value can be delivered from Martabe, not just for the current mine life but from the significant exploration potential that exists on the large tenement area that the company has access to for 30 plus years.This paper will deal with the physical challenges associated with the design, the Indonesian government regulatory requirements for mine development, the social aspects of building a world-class project in a developing area, the in-country commitment necessary for any project development anywhere in the world and the successful funding arrangements for the mine development.CITATION:Albert, P G, Siahaan, L H D and Duffy, T J V, 2012. Building AsiaÆs latest hard rock mine, in Proceedings International Mine Management 2012, pp 189-204 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 20, 2012

By J Balzary, A Mohais

Dynamic market and operating conditions, coupled with an environment in which multiple objectives and trade-offs are common, pose major challenges for planners and schedulers working in any mining entity. Many mining companies recognise the need to shift from a siloed mining-focused push model to an integrated value chain, demand-driven approach, but there are still fundamental barriers in business process and the supporting technology preventing a consideration of end-to-end optimality.This paper presents some elements of experiences working with companies to adopt such advanced approaches. In addition to algorithmic elements, an approach to phased and gradual deployment of progressively more sophisticated optimisation models is described. From a practical software adoption perspective, it is believed that this last concern is also of primary importance. Next generation approaches to the optimisation of complex bulk commodity demand chains, namely iron ore and coal are presented, with case studies in the world’s largest integrated operations in Western Australia and Queensland from the raw material mined through to market. Utilising accurate simulation models supported by metaheuristic optimisation techniques, a range of ways to engineer a dynamic decision support framework that can adapt and change with the inevitable changes in commodity markets is explored. Objectives such as total revenue, margin, cost, NPV, throughput, asset utilisation, contractual penalties and bonuses, and energy consumption can be managed simultaneously across the mine, plant, logistics network, port operation, shipping and sales domains.CITATION:Balzary, J and Mohais, A, 2014. Consideration for multiobjective metaheuristic optimisation of large iron ore and coal supply chains, from resource to market, in Proceedings Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning Symposium 2014, pp 213–222 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 24, 2014

By M Berner, N A. Sifferlinger, E Fimbinger

Today, the advance rate of underground roadway development by drill and blast operation is limited by the need to ventilate the toxic blast fumes after each cycle. In deep mines this usually is only possible during shift changes when the related mine sections are free of persons. This results in roadway development advance rates of 4 m per shift, or 12 m per day. For long roadways this is a limiting factor in mining development in deep mines. Companies like EPIROC, KOMATSU, ROBBINS and SANDVIK are making serious R&D efforts to disc-cutting mobile miners to overcome this bottleneck. However, today, the achieved advance rates are less than 12 m per day in hard rock. If we achieve full robotisation and/or teleoperation from a safe place for drill and blast operation of an underground roadway development section, we could eliminate this bottleneck. Poisonous blasting fumes do not affect robots and machines as long as these fumes do not create aggressive acids. If we can keep the blast fumes isolated in the roadway development section for the shift until the next ventilation opportunity (eg shift change or designated ventilation times), we can do the drill and blast cycle more often in a shift, which will significantly speed up the advance rate. This requires robotisation of all work steps in the section: surveying, drilling, charging of explosives, blasting, loading and transporting material, roof support, installation of infrastructure etc. Also, cache storage for the material is needed. Special care for the ventilation system to keep the blasting fumes under control in the section is necessary. The paper discusses the aspects needed to achieve this robotisation and the related technical and operational tasks.

Sep 1, 2024

By K H. Esbensen

Optimisation of a real-time at-line monitoring system for control of industrial granule coating quality is presented. The system is based on a fluorescence imaging system, because fluorescence originates in the interiors of enzyme granules but is significantly quenched by a polymer coating (which is needed due to environmental precautions). We have developed an image analytical system for direct prediction of coating quality, which is based on application of the Angle Measure Technique (AMT) for image complexity characterisation; AMT is briefly described. The first part of the presentation addresses pixel sampling strategies within a digital industrial image, inherent in application of AMT, in which the unfolded image is regarded as a one-dimensional object in analogy with 1D process sampling in Theory of Sampling (TOS). The effects of random, stratified and systematic pixel selections in the unfolded image are evaluated. Also factors such as the fraction of image pixels and the effects of specific unfolding strategies (there are three principal strategies, termed æchopÆ, æsnakeÆ and æspiralÆ respectively) are investigated. It turns out that unsuspected artifacts are sometimes produced, related to the specifics of the unfolding procedure, which interferes with a straightforward 1D TOS process sampling analogy. These artifacts have a wider interest û among others, for 2D sampling û and therefore receive special attention in this presentation. The optimal pixel selection strategy for the AMT algorithm is found to be systematic or stratified sampling (not surprising according to TOS) of 500+ initiating points, but need to be unfolded in the novel spiral- or snake-wise fashions in order to effectively counteract these artifacts. This also has a general impact on various suggested standard schemes for 2D grid-sampling, among others, from the geoscience realms. The second part of the presentation is directed towards optimal image analytical sampling of a continuous series of fluorescent images (imaging of conveyor belts of æinfinite lengthÆ), ie optimisation of process image sampling. The minimum number of images needed to uphold a sufficiently good on-line estimate of the quality control (QC) parameter in question is found to correspond to the relatively high sampling rate of 15 - 20 per cent, which can be shown to be related to an intrinsic very high measurement error level (25 per cent) of a mandated analytical reference method.

Jan 1, 2005

By H Utama, hi, A Suw

PT. Indo Muro Kencana (PT.IMK) is gold and silver mine located in Central Kalimantan province, Indonesia. Mining activities in PT.IMK is conducted in Bantian pit area by applying surface mining method and using combination of excavator and hauler (articulated dump truck and rigid haul truck) as the transportation for ore to the crushing plant and waste material to the waste dump. Current blasting practice is ore-waste blasting. Ore-waste blasting is the term where the ore and waste rock are blasted in the same blasting process. Blasting is conducted by using nonel initiation system. By multiple pits operation, monthly powder factor is varied from 0.23 kg/t to 0.27 kg/t. Emulsion blend with density 1.15 g/cc is used as bulk explosive. At this stage, the concept of geoblast is proposed as an engineering tool for Drill and Blast engineering practice in PT.IMK. In addition, there is a need to maintain rock fragmentation by blasting, to maintain monthly powder factor, and to maintain excavator’s productivity. Next, the concept of scaled depth of burial (Chiappetta and Treleven, 1997) and the concept of blastability index (Lilly, 1986) are proposed as geoblast’s tools to improve blasting practice in PT.IMK. It is expected that rock fragmentation by blasting, explosive consumption and excavator’s productivity will be maintained by integration of geoblast and drill and blast engineering. Furthermore, the objective of this paper is to integrate geoblast and drill and blast engineering in order to create an engineering guideline in PT.IMK. Additionally, blasting trials with air decking application is proposed in order to support the geoblast’s improvement. It is planned that these blasting trials will be conducted in 2022. In conclusion, it can be seen that integration of geoblast and D&B engineering in PT.IMK is relevant to improve current drill and blast current practice and applicable to maintain rock fragmentation by blasting.

Nov 29, 2022

By C Jenkins, M Mativenga, C Stanton, J Gerber

In 2014, Arrium completed an optimisation program on its magnetite concentrator, enabling a reduction in the overall cost base of producing concentrate through an increased ability to treat a wider range of ore types, previously considered waste. The development was the culmination of four years of work, conducted in house by Arrium’s mining development group. The overall intent of the plant design focused on improving the concentrator’s ability to treat a wider range of magnetite ore types. Metallurgical analysis of these feed ore groups outlined a need for more grinding power if production quality was to be maintained and throughput increased. As such, a tertiary grinding circuit was designed which, alongside the rectification of key operational bottlenecks, would allow the plant to continue to produce concentrate at the required specification and rate. The technology chosen for the tertiary grinding application was the XT IsaMillTM, which is known for efficient fine grinding when compared to conventional ball milling. The transfer sizes between the existing comminution circuits were coarsened, allowed for the treatment of different ores at the required rates. The optimisation project was successfully completed in February 2014 after a three month commissioning phase. The initial metallurgical testing and engineering of new equipment proved highly successful with all equipment meeting or exceeding design parameters.CITATION:Stanton, C, Mativenga, M, Gerber, J and Jenkins, C, 2015. Unlocking plant capability through targeted debottlenecking of Arrium’s magnetite concentrator, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 185–190 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By C J. Moran

All mines face water management challenges. Adopting leading practice water management strategies can help reduce both operational and strategic risks. While many of the water issues faced by underground mines are the same as other operations, underground mining presents some unique water management challenges. In this paper we review trends in underground mining, water use and associated water issues. We then compile a structured set of strategic and operational risks that are pertinent to underground operations. The causes, threats, opportunities and measures for controlling or mitigating the risks are summarised. The risk compilation could provide an addendum for underground operations to the Australian governments leading practice water management handbook.

Mar 21, 2011

By L Dyer, A Keith, G D. Corder

As mining activity moves to remote and less developed locations globally, a holistic approach to mine development is fundamental for achieving a balance between strong financial returns and corporate social responsibility and transparency. Key inter-related fundamentals such as social licence to operate, life-of-mine operational planning, minimising environmental impacts and, most importantly, attractive investment returns for the mining company all contribute to the viability of any new mining project.However, the typical practice in the mining industry is often to treat environmental and social/community aspects as separate compliance issues that are dealt with at minimum cost and disruption to the project and resulting operation. This often results in less than optimum environmental and social outcomes, and presents considerable liabilities at the time of closure when rehabilitation programs continue to require funding when all revenue has ceased.The five capitals model seeks to identify each of the key contributors to sustainable development as financial, manufactured/physical, social, human and natural to formulate a type of triple bottom line approach balancing these often competing project factors. The SUSOP® sustainability risks and opportunities framework, developed by the mining industry, bases its approach on the five capitals model and proposes an approach that breaks down enterprise silos to identify innovative solutions for life-of-mine sustainability. This framework has been developed with the nature of mining projects in mind in order to produce approaches and outcomes relevant throughout the life cycle from the planning phases, through project design and construction into operation and closure.This paper argues the need for a more holistic approach to the development and operation of mining projects, and presents case studies where a holistic approach has been applied, in whole or part, and discusses the lessons learned from these case studies.CITATION:Corder, G D, Keith, A and Dyer, L, 2014. A capitals based approach – leading innovation in planning for life-of-mine sustainability, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014, pp 499–512 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

By E Philippa, J Vitanza, C Hawtin, B Miller

B Miller , E Philippa , C Hawtin and J Vitanza

Mar 22, 2022