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By AIME AIME

THE annual meeting of the A.I.M.E. was fittingly closed with a joint meeting of the Metropolitan sections of the four National societies on Feb. 18, at which this subject was adequately discussed by leading engineers before an audience that completely filled the Engineering Auditorium. The large amount of publicity that has been given the Diesel electric loco- motive, and the often garbled reports of its performance and possibilities that have been circulated, makes it particularly fitting that the facts should be given the profession as determined by those who have aided in developing and operating this latest form of prime- mover in railroad operation. C. A. Stein, general manager of the Central R. R. of New Jersey, opened the meeting with a discussion of the problem of electrification, and the relation of the short haul, switching, and terminal service to heavy electrification. Referring directly to the problem of the Central R. R. of New Jersey, some subtitution for the steam locomotive is necessary within the city limits of New York because of local ordinances against the smoke nuisance. While the improvement in the design of the steam locomotive has been marked-the efiiency today is over fifty times that of the locomotive of 100 years ago-it has now probably reached the point of maximum perfection. If anything, it is open to the criticism of having Coo many appliances to get out of

Jan 1, 1926

By E. P. Fleming

COMPARED to the situation abroad, the domestic industry continues to lag both as regards the production and consumption of newly mined lead. During 1938 we produced and consumed slightly over 20 per cent of the world output, whereas ten years ago the figure was nearly double this pro- portion. Labor difficulties and absence of demand were chiefly responsible for the general inactivity. In the foreign field, in spite of low metal prices, production and consumption of lead equaled or exceeded all previous records. Practically all the large companies, with the exception of those in Spain, increased operations, though it should be noted that the foreign lead mines have higher-grade ores than domestic mines. In view of the rapid expansion of the foreign industry, it is natural to expect greater progress abroad, particularly in process metallurgy.

Jan 1, 1939

(Members are urged to send in for this column any notes of interest concerning themselves or their fellow-members) The following is a partial list of members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period June 10, 1917, to July 10, 1917. Guy N. Bjorge, Boston, Mass. H. H. Lauer, Allentown, Pa. A. H. Burroughs, Jr., Britannia Beach, E. C. Lee, Pittsburgh, Pa. B. C., Canada. Montrose L. Lee, Port-au-Prince, Hayti. Karl Eilers, New York, N. Y. Eugene McAuliffe, Paducah, Ky. H. S. Emlaw, Grand Haven, Mich. R. H..McMillen, Pittsburgh, Pa. W. R. Hamilton, San Francisco, Cal. L. D. Moore, Providence, R. I. Fred N. Hays, Sharon, Pa. Fred J. Pope, New Rochelle, N. Y. E. Hibbert, Nickelton, Ont., Canada. George S. Rice, Washington, D. C. Charles Janin, San Francisco, Cal. W. G. Swart, Duluth, Minn. Milton A. Allen has resigned his position with the Federal Lead Co. and accepted a position with the Arizona State Bureau of Mines, Tucson, Ariz. L. W. Bahney has resigned as Professor at Yale University and accepted a position as metallurgical engineer with the Scovill Manufacturing Co., Waterbury, Conn.

Jan 8, 1917

By TRUMAN S. FULLER

THE GREAT INTEREST in decomposition and trans- formation, so evident in the study of alloys during the last two years, was reflected in the many papers on this subject, presented at the first session of the Institute of Metals, Tuesday morning. Dr. F. A. Thomson, of Montana State School of Mines, presented the first paper by C. Wilson, H. F. Silliman, and E. C. Little, "Rate of Precipitation of Nickel Silicide and Cobalt Silicide in the Hardenable Copper-nickel-silicon and Copper- cobalt-silicon Alloys." Dr. R. F. Mehl, in discussing this paper, stated that the title was somewhat deceptive, as it indicated that the rate of precipitation is determined; the method used is a measurement of electrical conductivity and hardness, neither of which is suitable for a quantitative measurement of rates of reaction or precipitation in the solid state. Hardness is also uncertain because it depends so much upon particle size. Of the various methods proposed for the study of rate of reaction and precipitation the evaluation of volume of reaction produced from the area of photomicrograph is the best.

Jan 1, 1933

By W. F. NETZZEBAND

THE long-hole drill has been used for prospecting underground in the tri-State district for several years, and its value has been pretty thoroughly proved. An attempt was made to get a statement of their experience with the machine from all the operators who were known to have used the machine. The majority of them replied to the questionnaire so that this paper is practically a summary of the experience of the district, together with some practical details taken from the experience of the Eagle-Picher Lead Company. When the drill was first used by the Eagle-Picher Lead Co., it was put in low headings and was mounted on a cross-arm supported by two drill columns. This was found to be a rather awkward method of mounting, because fairly long moves were made and the same drill columns could not be used on any two successive set-ups. The machine was later moved to a mine with high headings so that this type of mounting was found to be impractical. A heavy tripod was tried and found satisfactory, provided care was taken to see that the set-up was solid. The Evans-Wallower Lead Co. and the Century Zinc Co. report using the double post set-up, but the headings are low in these mines. The Commerce Mining St Royalty Co. first used the double-post mounting in high headings by cutting a niche in the wall and setting the post in it. This proved to be a slow and expensive method and was later abandoned for the tripod. The Federal Mining & Smelting Co. has used a tripod throughout its operations. Great care must be taken in using the tripod to see that the set-up is solid. Wherever possible it is advisable to sludge in the legs and let them set a short time before the machine is put into use. Where high bottom is encountered the Eagle-Picher operator found it advisable to drill jack- hammer holes in the bottom and drive the legs into them.

Jan 1, 1930

By M. S. Burton, B. W. Christ, G. V. Smith

Evidence of the effects which high-angle grain boundaries and veining subgrain boundaries have on the yield phenomenon of zone-refined iron is reported. Room-temperature tensile tests on 50-mil wive at several gram sizes produced upon recrystallization at diffevent temperatures below 910C (a-y phase-transfornzatzon temperature) show that upper and lower yield stress decrease with increasing grain size. The upper yield point effectively disappears at grain sizes of 81 and 102 u in samples of this diameter. However, samples of 129 p grain size. produced during recrys-tallization at 950°C, exhibit a pronounced upper yield point and an increased lower yield stress. Possible causes of the reversal in the grain-size dependence of yielding are discussed. Veining substructure, detected with picval-HC1 etchant, but not with 2 pct nital, is formed during the a-y transformation, and is believed to account for the observed effecls. The strengthening associated with high-angle boundaries in zone-refined tron is discussed in terms of: 1) the stress dependence of slzp multiplicity, and 2) the stress dependence of dislocation emission from grain boundaries. WIDE use of transmission electron microscopy and dislocation etch-pitting techniques has led to a growing awareness of the presence of dislocation substructures in annealed pure metals. Whereas much speculation'-4 has developed about the influence which subgrain structures have on the mechanical behavior of metals, particularly the yield strength, only limited experimental evidence correlating subgrain structures with lower yield strength has been presented. 2,3,5-7 It is the purpose of this note to present experimental evidence of the effects which grain boundaries and subgrain boundaries have on both the upper and lower yield strength of zone-refined iron. Effects due to high-angle boundaries formed upon recrystallization below the a-y phase transformation are compared with effects due to veining subgrain boundaries formed upon "recrystallization" above the a-y phase-transformation temperature. These effects are further compared with the reported influence 2,3,5-7 which low-angle boundaries have on the lower yield strength of bcc transition metals. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The starting material for these experiments was a 1-in.-diam zone-refined ingot prepared at Battelle Memorial Institute. Initial purification of electrolytic iron by vacuum-induction melting was improved by a floating zone-melting treatment in ultrapure hydrogen.' Chemical analysis of this zone-refined iron appears in Table I. Tensile samples of 50-mil wire were prepared by rolling and drawing portions of the ingot. An intermediate recrystallization anneal at 625°C after rolling to a reduction in area of 85 pct was carried out in an evacuated Vycor capsule (10-=5 mm Hg). Further reduction in area of 91 pct was followed by recrystallization in evacuated Vycor capsules at temperatures between 600" and 950°C, see Table 111. All samples

Jan 1, 1967

By AIME AIME

THOUGH the Annual Meeting of the Institute-officially numbered 158 on the records was delayed a bit at the start by low steam pressure on the locomotives bringing members to New York, the crowd that finally arrived more than lived up to expectations, and the technical program had few difficulties because of absent authors or lack of competent discussers. The transportation difficulties were occasioned by the fact that Monday, Feb. 15, was the third coldest day in the 72 year history of the New York Weather Bureau, the official temperature being 8 below zero. The New York Central's premier train, the 20th Century, due at 9:30 a.m., arrived about 6:30 p.m., and the Commodore, another crack train from Chicago, was about equally late.

Jan 1, 1943

By Thomas T. Read

EVERYONE engaged in the teaching of mining engineering will, I suppose, agree that the most difficult subject to teach is "Mining Methods." One primary difficulty is that the students taking the course have either had no previous experience in mining, or else they have had; either seeming to be somewhat of a drawback. The students who are unfamiliar with mines find it difficult to visualize underground conditions, as described and illustrated with sketches and maps, while those who have had underground experience seem to 'find it difficult to visualize anything much different from that which they have already seen. This reminds one of the remark about the Presbyterian doctrine of predestination, to the effect that "you are damned ,if you do; and damned if you don't."

Jan 1, 1930

BUMPS in No. 2 Mine, Springhill, N. S., furnished the main feature for discussion at the morning meeting* on Ground Movement and Subsidence on Feb. 18. Walter Herd, the author of the paper by which the discussion was introduced, not being well, was unable to be present. The paper was presented by T. L. McCall, who laid stress on the presence of sand- stone as the cause of bumps, on the value of retreating longwall in eliminating such phenomena at the coal face and on the advantage of wide headings with packs on either side, leaving space behind them for any coal that bumps might dislodge. George S. Rice, who presided, referred to his visits to the Nova Scotia mines and said that bumps usually occurred only where the coal was thick and strong and the roof and floor both more than usually hard. If any of the three were weak, bumps were not likely to occur. In the Nova Scotia mine, to which Mr. Herd referred, there was no material for packwalls and for this reason as well as for safety he had been convinced that long- wall retreating with a small percentage of pack walling was the most feasible plan.

Jan 1, 1929

By R. H. Swallow, George Hess

Aerial photography was once a crude, uncertain tool. Today it is a precision mapping instrument which saves important time and money for strip mining and other industry. Aerial photography began in the boxkite days of aviation. The Army first used it for rough reconnaissance photographs. Then, in the early Twenties, industry began to use aerial photographs of their plants and facilities for advertising or annual reports. The quality of these pictures was not very good by today's standards, but this work began the development of better cameras, better lenses, better photographic techniques.

Jan 1, 1949

W. P. WHITE,* Washington, D. C. (written discussion?).-The authors seem to have proved that for a phenomenon as irregular as the one they were investigating there was no perceptible conduction effect in the platinum wire. It should be mentioned, however, that the conduction of heat to and from small wires is not proportional to their surface and might give unexpected value, varying largely with the medium in which the wire was situated. Attempts to eliminate a conduction effect in the wire by extrapolating the curve obtained by using different sizes have in some cases given incorrect results, so that the authors' result should be applied with great care as a guide in other cases. The difference in size of wire employed by them is really rather small. If the desire had been to find out how great the effect was instead of merely to demonstrate its absence, a greater difference of diameter would, of course, have been selected. The sharp gradient immediately in front of the burning portion of the cigar is quite surprising at first sight. The weight of air coming from a flame is considerably greater than the weight of material burned, and it would be thought that this stream of heated air would heat very con-siderably the material not yet reached by the zone of combustion. Pos-sibly the heat is exhausted in evaporating moisture from the material. In that case the cigar is really a sort of regenerative furnace, except that it is not air but the, material which is preheated, and the pre-heating produces dryness rather than increase of temperature. Whether or not this is the case would be shown by finding how hot a thoroughly dry cigar would get.

Jan 12, 1919

By Carl Floe

A NUMBER of proposals have been made for the hydrometallurgical recovery of copper from flotation concentrates, but as yet no process has been developed that has demonstrated an ability to compete with the present smelting methods under ordinary conditions. The treat-ment of copper concentrates by hydrometallurgical methods is in general similar to that used in the present electrolytic zinc process and involves roasting, leaching with H2S04 solution, separation of solutions, control of impurities and electrodeposition. While many of these steps are simpler and more readily carried out for copper than for zinc, a number of inherent difficulties have prevented the general adoption of the process. To compete with smelting, the following problems must still be con-fronted, although many solutions for their have been proposed: (1) con-duction of the roast in such a way that leaching will give an extraction of copper comparable to that obtained by smelting; (2) regulation of the ferric iron content of the solutions during electrolysis; (3) disposal of the excess acid regenerated from the sulphates formed in roasting; (4) eco-nomical recovery of the precious metals from the leach residues. The roasting problem is largely one of preventing the formation of copper ferrites, CuO.Fe2O, and Cu20.Fe2O3, which are quite insoluble in dilute sulphuric acid. These ferrites are apparently formed' to a small extent even at low temperatures and above 650° C. their formation is rapid1. While it is possible to carry out laboratory roasts in such a way that less than 5 per cent of the total copper is present in the insoluble ferrite form, a closer temperature control is required than can readily be obtained in industrial furnaces. The flash" roasting effects and consequent high temperatures that occur as the calcine falls from hearth to hearth in the ordinary multiple-hearth roaster are probably largely responsible for the inevitable formation of some ferrites. The result is that in a commercial plant the extraction of copper would not average more than 90 per cent in a single 10 per cent H2SO4 leach. This is

Jan 1, 1937

ALTHOUGH iron ores occur in many parts of Sweden the two principal deposits are those at Grängesberg (see accompanying map) and at Kiirunavaara-Gellivare. Both of these deposits are con-trolled by a holding company, Trajikaktiebolaget Grängesberg-Oxelösund, which sells annually about one-half of, the iron in ore traded in world markets and has a fleet of 24 seagoing ore boats, with a total dead weight capacity of 172,500 tons. Because of its pre-eminence in international iron ore trade a brief outline of its operations will be of interest. ORE DEPOSITS OF GRÄNGESBERG The Grängesberg deposits have been known since the Middle Ages, but up to the middle of the nineteenth century the ore was transported from the mines to the furnaces in winter in. sleighs. Railway building began in 1853, and in 1873 the complicated structure of capital investment was tottering, but the basic bessemer process created a demand for ore high in phosphorus, as this is, and refinancing on the initiative of Sir Ernest Cassel put the principal operation on a firm footing. There are numerous property owners in the district, but they are all controlled by a joint administration board, and 90 per cent of the ore is produced by a subsidiary of the Grängesberg company from proper-ties which it either owns or leases. The ore, a mixture of magnetite and specular hematite, is in lenticular bodies, dipping about 70 E. in. fine-grained gneiss, and contains about 61 per cent Fe and 1 per. cent. P. There are two principal veins; the total ore reserves to a depth of 500 meters are estimated at 150,000,000 tons. As seen in the accompanying illustration, the ores were first worked in open cuts, but eventually underground shrinkage stoping was adopted. Difficulties were encountered in the support of the workings and from the freezing of the ore in the stopes, so slicing was adopted, although block-caving is used in one place. Most of the mining is now done at a depth "of 150 to 190 meters. The present annual output is about 1,400,-000 tons of crude ore, which yields about 1,000,000 tons of concentrate after being subjected to magnetic con-centration and jigging.

Jan 1, 1927

By Clyde Longyear

DURING the last two years, the diamond core drill has come rapidly to the front as a very valuable auxiliary to the equipment of the exploration and production departments of oil companies. The diamond drill and the rotary oil drill work on the same general principles, the essential difference being that the diamond drill employs an annular steel bit set with black diamonds ("carbons"), instead of the fish-tail or other type of bit employed by the rotary drill. On account of the brittleness of the carbon and the danger of breakage if subjected to sudden blows or stresses, it is not practicable to attach a diamond bit and core-barrel to the end of a rotary drill stem. The operating mechanism of the diamond drill must be subject to much more sensitive control than the rotary drill. The bit must be rotated smoothly, without the jerks that are incident to the operation of the clutches and chain drives on the rotary draw works, and the feed must be con-trolled in a much more delicate manner than the mere action of a brake on a hoist. To accomplish this smooth rotation, diamond drills are usually built as a self-con-tained unit with the crank shaft of the engine geared direct to the drive shaft that turns the drill rods or stem. One or two hydraulic cylinders connected with a high-pressure pump control the feed so definitely that the bit can be raised or lowered at will, while the bit is rotating, by the simple operation of valves. The smaller-sized-drills for very shallow work usually have a screw feed control instead of the hydraulic feed. The principal uses of the diamond drill in oil work are three: 1. Reconnaissance or structure drilling; that is, the drilling of a number of shallow holes to ascertain the subsurface contour. 2. Scout drilling, or the drilling of holes of smaller diameter than is required for production, to obtain information as to the character of the oil sand and the quality of the oil. 3. Drilling producing wells.

Jan 5, 1923

AT THE beginning of October, the outstanding feature in the world's affairs was the Turkish question. The Turks, victorious over the Greeks, repudiated the treaty of Sévres with the Allies and demanded their reestablishment at Con-stantinople and in Thrace. The British resisted, but deserted by the French and Italians, at a military conference at Mudania the Turks obtained about everything that they wanted. Great Britain suffered a loss of prestige that may bear evil fruit in the future. The possession of the Dardanelles by the Turks pro-duced the ruin of Russia and Rumania in the great war, prolonged it two years and made it necessary for America to go in. Disruption of the entente puts the Turks back where they were. In America a strong and spontaneous reaction developed against this, not for any diplomatic reasons, but purely out of the sentiment that the atrocious Turks should be confined to Anatolia. Some strong leadership would have aligned the United States with Great Britain in this matter. As it is, the French have had their way but have alienated much of their American friendship. The temporary composition of Turkish affairs at the Mudania conference had momentous consequences. The Greeks, having expelled King Constantine, in their distress and despair reverted to the guidance of Venizelos. Evacuation of the Grecian military forces and the entire Grecian population from Eastern Thrace began, the people not venturing to remain there. From all accounts their withdrawal, attended by great hardships, was reminiscent of folk movements in the Middle Ages. The vanguard of the Angora Govern-ment set foot in Constantinople, marking the return of the Turks to Europe, while the Allied forces remain-ing there temporarily stood in chagrin. In Great Britain an important element of the Con-servatives withdrew their support from the Coalition Government, thus leading to the resignation of Lloyd George, the installation of Andrew Bonar Law as premier and a general election with a tri-party contest among the Conservatives, Liberals and Labor, called for Nov. 15. Civil war continued in Ireland, but attention was diverted from it by the more important events in the Near East.

Jan 11, 1922

By H. Shaw

In the author's previous paper an attempt was made to analyze in detail the gravitational effects arising from certain subterranean anomalies of simple form, and extending to infinity in three directions. As a result of this critical examination, certain features—which were considered to be characteristic of the anomalies under investigation—were disclosed, a close observance of which enables a complete interpretation to be reached. The most simple case was first considered; viz., that of a heavy horizontal plate, bounded above and below by horizontal planes, and extending to infinity on one side of a vertical plane containing the y axis, in the three directions + y, —y, and +x. After this, the investigation was extended to the case of a similar infinite horizontal block having an inclined face. In each case the form and behavior of the gradient curve and the curve of differential curvature were analyzed, and entirely distinct interpretations were put forward, based upon (1) the gradient, (2) the differential curvature and (3) a comparison of these two quantities. In continuation of the previous work, and as a preliminary to further analysis of more complex structures, certain factors will now be examined which characterize (1) the simple infinite vertical block and (2) an infinite block which is inclined to the vertical, formations which are of considerable practical interest, being typical of important. geological structures—intru-sive dikes, lodes, veins, etc.—and because, even though in nature these may be irregular, valuable guides to a more complete interpretation are obtained by assuming, as a first approximation, that they have the simple characteristics to be studied hereafter. In the previous paper certain preliminary assumptions were made in order to render the resulting deductions universally applicable and entirely independent of the particular scale employed. Consideration was limited to homogeneous deposits of unit positive effective density (and this condition is retained in the present investigation), so that in the case of

Jan 1, 1932

SIDNEY ROLLE, Chrome, N. J.-I should like to ask if Mr. Bach does not think it rather harmful to let the amen depend entirely on the company, whether it would not be a good plan to let the men aid a little in the support of these organizations? Also whether he has had any experience with utilizing the Y. M. C. A. in this connection. E. E. BACH, Ellsworth, Pa.-That question is always raised whenever there is discussion upon this subject. So far as we are concerned that would not help a bit; our people do not have that feeling, because .we have a company which these men recognize has a corps of very sympathetic officials in every way. I remember the assistant general manager lived out in one of these mining towns for a while. His difficulty was that every man, no matter what, who or where he was, if he had, or thought lie had, a, complaint, had the right of way to his office, and didn't have to stop at all. That is the spirit that predominates all through it. This is also the spirit of the mine foremen, two of whom were trained in our own night school, and it is the spirit of the fire boss and the general spirit of the people. They do not feel that we are trying to feed them with a spoon. As to the Y. M. C. A., we feel that it would be impracticable for us. R H. VAIL, New York, N. Y.-It would be very interesting if Mr. Bach would tell a little more about the control of the dispensing of intoxicants. There are many communities where the state intends to do that but does not succeed very well, and as Mr. Bach has spoken of the speakeasies on the environment of these towns, it would he well to know more about the problem of eliminating those.

Jan 4, 1918

By H. C. George

As the basis for a round table discussion of Petroleum Engineering Education for the February, 1930, meeting of the Petroleum Division, A. I. M. E., the following questions were sent to about 60 of the leading engineers and educators in the petroleum industry: 1. Should there be any changes in the curricula of our courses in petroleum engineering to meet the changing demands of the Industry? If so, what changes?] 2. Should courses in petroleum engineering be offered through university extension? 3. Should the universities offer correspondence courses in petroleum engineering? 4. What should be the character of the graduate work offered in petroleum production engineering? 5. Should summer work in the oil fields, on pipe lines, or in oil refineries be required of undergraduates? If so, how much and of what character? The following men replied to the questions: G. B. Corless, Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas. J. R. McWilliams, Skelly Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla. W. W. Scott, Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas. H. H. Power, Gypsy Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla. L. G. E. Bignell, Oil K. Gas Journal, Tulsa, Okla. E. L. Estabrook, Pan American Petroleum & Transport Co., New York, N. Y. F. P. Donohue, Pan American Petroleum & Transport Co., New York, N. Y. C. 0. Rison, lndian Territory Illuminating Oil Co., Bartlesville, Okla. L. B. Holland, Phillips Petroleum Co., Bartlesville, Okla. H. J. Kemler, Shell Petroleum Corpn., St. Louis, Mo. C. A. Bonine, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. J. 0. Lewis, Dunn & Lewis, Tulsa, Okla. A. G. Heggem, Tulsa, Okla. J. M. Lovejoy, Petroleum Bond & Share Corpn., New York, N. Y. B. B. Boatright, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. A. C. Ruble, Union Oil Co. of California, Los Angeles, Calif. J. B. Umpleby, Goldelline Oil Corpn., Oklahoma City, Okla. R. S. Knappen, Gypsy Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla. K. C. Heald, Gulf Companies, Pittsburgh, Pa. K. C. Sclater, Exchange National Bank Bldg., Tulsa, Okla. F. G. Tickell, Stanford University, Stanford University, Calif.

Jan 1, 1930

By L. D. Ricketts

AN older man looks back, perhaps wistfully, on a long and rather active experience, and possibly a popular and brief glimpse of some contrast between past and present may hold your attention for a few brief moments and prove useful. In the late nineties an engineer was .called on to de- sign and build two copper ore concentrating mills of 400 tons average daily capacity. There were larger mills than this at Washoe and elsewhere, but a 400 ton' mill was a large one as mills went over thirty years ago, and one might say a large mill of those days could crush a ton of copper ore in 216 seconds. In the mills I refer to steel construction and the conveying belts were introduced into the copper industry and rein- forced concrete came shortly after. Since then we in the West have ever been faced with a constantly de- creasing tenor in the grade of our copper ores and a constantly increasing demand for our product, and we have therefore been obliged to call for far larger castings and finished machines than were formerly used. The mechanical engineer has also enabled us to accomplish notable economies in power generation and distribution. Ore handling and crushing have been simplified and through the introduction of reagents to induce physical or chemical reactions, or both, our older methods have been vastly improved or even supplanted by new and better ones and our recoveries greatly improved.

Jan 1, 1929

By R. E. Grant

THE Cerro de Pasco Railway Co., owned and operated by the Corporation, is a common carrier whose chief functions are transportation of ore and concentrates from the mines at Cerro de Pasco to the smelter in Oroya, and haulage of coal from the coal mines at Goyllarisquisga to the coal washery at Fundicion. Connecting with the Peruvian Central Railway at Oroya, the C. de P. Railway maintains joint, daily freight and passenger service from Lima and the port of Callao to Cerro de Pasco, terminal of the C. de P. main line and gateway to the Huanuco Valley. Extending from Oroya to Cerro de Pasco the main line is a standard-gauge roadbed of 70-lb. rail, 132 km. long with a maximum compensated grade of 2.25 per cent and a curvature of 16°, climbing from an elevation of 12,272 ft. above sea level at Oroya, lowest station on the line, to 14,208 ft. at Cerro de Pasco. The highest point reached by the C. de P. is on the coal branch at Alcacocha where the rails are 14,385 ft. above the sea.

Jan 1, 1945