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By H. F. Beardmore

PETROLEUM consumption during 1946 broke all previous records and further increases are expected during 1947. U. S. consumption amounted to an average of 5,280,000 bbl a day, of which 4,745,000 bbl was domestic crude oil, with the rest from natural gasoline production and crude oil imports. World consumption during the past year, excluding Russia, is estimated at 7,200,000 bbl daily. Forecasts for 1947 indicate a U. S. consumption of 5,425,000 bbl daily of petroleum products. This is expected to be made up of 4,655,000 bbl of domestic crude oil production, 340,000 bbl of natural gasoline production, 400,000 bbl of crude oil imports, and the rest from stocks. Petroleum's principal use is still as a fuel. The field remains highly competitive, but petroleum has been continuously progressing. Less than fifty years ago, oil supplied only one twentieth as much of the nation's total energy as coal, but today it supplies over half as much.

Jan 1, 1947

By M. A. Cook

Sutherland used an ion-pair adsorption model to derive the author's hy-drolytic pee-acid) adsorption equation for the contact bubble curves of Wark and Cox. To do so it was necessary to postulate that the sum of coverages of surface anion sites by the collector and depressant anions is practically unity. It is here shown that the free energy of Sutherland's postulated collector ion (x-)-depressant ion (OH-) exchange reaction (for no other than the OH- to compete with X-), namely EX + (OH-) Z SOH- + X-, is in some cases positive and X- should not even adsorb. Also, in many cases the (OH-) adsorption must be quite negligible even though the collector covers only about a sixth of the mineral surface at the threshold of air bubble contact. This, however, contradicts the postulate that permits one to derive the correct bubble contact eqwztion for the ion-pair model. Furthermore, the requirement for charge neutrality leads in the ion-pair model to the (impossible) constancy of the ratio @+)/(OH-) along a contact bubble curve in which pH may change by more than seven units. HYDROLYTIC ADSORPTION EQUATION Hydrolytic (free-acid or free-base) and ion-pair (H', X-, or R', OH-) adsorption models of the collector in metal sulfide and similar flotation systems are superficially alike and somewhat difficult to differentiate. This is because they yield, under seemingly valid assumptions, equivalent forms of the equations describing the distribution of the collector between the aqueous solution and the mineral surface. This has been discussed by the author and associates1-4 and more recently by Sutherland,' both for simple collector-mineral and for more complicated collector-depressant-mineral systems. In the hydrolytic adsorption model the equations describing the contact bubble curves of Wark and coxeJ7 are as follows :2 Here X is the collector anion, D- the depressant anion, 9, and On are the fractions of the free-acid sites S on the surface of the mineral covered by collector and depressant free acids, respectively, and @ is the fraction of uncovered sites. Kx is the free-acid collector dissociation equilibrium con- stant, K1 that for the free-acid collector adsorption, KD that for the free-acid depressant dissociation, and K2 the equilibrium constant for the free-acid depressant adsorption. Eqs. 1 to 5 yield upon simultaneous solution the result is the critical free-acid concentration for bubble contact in the absence of depressant-free acid. Eq. 8 expresses the conditions along a simple collector-mineral contact bubble curve for the case HD = 0, or V = 0. Last and Cook showed that Eq. 6 applies generally and with good accuracy in the collector-depressant-metal sulfide mineral systems. Inci-dentally, it has been shown by infrared absorption studies that in some cases the free-acid adsorption process splits out water.' In this case, Eq. 2 might be written SHOH + HX Z SHX + H20, with a similar equation replacing Eq. 4 for depressant-free acid-water exchange. This possibility does not change, however, the basic equations or considerations of the hydrolytic adsorption model. Indeed, this type of free acid-water exchange reaction was predicted for fluorite and iron ore flotation by oleic acid in the dry grinding and boiling processes.410

Jan 1, 1961

By Philip J. Shenon

IN 1947 the mining industry strove desperately to regain operating normalcy. During the first part of the year the industry in this country was plagued with labor shortages, strikes, and portal-to-portal lawsuits. Then followed the uncertainty of Government policy with respect to subsidies and tariffs; and the long and bitter controversy as to whether we are a nation of mineral "haves" or "have-nots." As the year progressed the labor supply impoved somewhat and the Taft-Hartley law brought partial relief to strike-troubled industry. The uncertainty with respect to tariffs was partly answered by President Truman on April 29 when he announced the suspension of the 4¢ import duty on copper until March 31, 1949, and later, near the close of the year, by the announcement of the tariff agreement signed by the United Nations at Geneva. By this agreement tariff rates are to be adjusted downward, or "bound" at their present levels, for three years, on commodities amounting to some 60 per cent of United States trade. Effective Jan. 1, 1948 the rate of duty will be substantially reduced on ores, concentrates, or metals of zinc, aluminum, copper, manganese, tungsten, iron, steel, barytes, nickel, cadmium, and antimony.

Jan 1, 1948

By G. W. Tower

THE YEAR 1931 was for most American copper producers one of restricted output but extremely low production cost.. When compared with 1929, the marked reductions in costs achieved in 1931, operating at rates in many instances a third to a half of capacity, can only be regarded as remarkable. In fact, the recent shut-down of several large operations suggests the probability that 1931 costs represent a bare minimum for many properties. Before discussing the 1931 results a few remarks on cost data are appropriate. The type of cost tabulation here presented was first published in 1929, (A. B. Parsons. E. & M. I. June 8, 1929), and has appeared each, succeeding year following in general the calculation method and company set-up of the original article. (. G. W. Tower, E. & III. L, July 8. 1930; S. D. Strauss, E. & M. J.; July 27, 1931). As far as possible the leading American copper companies are included. In considering these cost tabulations it must be borne in mind that the information from which they have been prepared is entirely contained in the annual report of each company; and that a multiplicity of interests and a condensed income statement for some of the larger companies, such as Cerro de Pasco and Kennecott, make the cost figure an arbitrary one depending upon sundry metal credits, metal products, miscellaneous income, etc. For Granby, Howe Sound. Magma, and Noranda, sundry metal credits are important. Furthermore Andes, Chile and Greene Cananea give costs only against copper sold. Although the individual costs here figured are by no means absolute they are computed by the same method each year and offer a basis of annual comparison; and with attention to footnotes the premises on which the costs are based may be easily followed.

Jan 1, 1932

By Charles C. Goddard

Since discovery of silver-gold lode deposits in 1864, the Butte district has produced more than $2.25 billion worth of copper, zinc, manganese, silver, and gold, an unprecedented value in the mining world. Exhaustion of the gold placer deposits along Silver Bow Creek, southwest of Butte, forced the early-day placer miners to turn their attention to the bold out- crops of the many veins exposed on the hillsides above the placer diggings. These outcrops bore silver and gold, and enough so that many lode claims were located. Such famous silver mines as the Alice, Moulton, Magna Carta, Nettie, and Blue Bird were developed. These and many smaller operations contributed to making Montana the leading silver-producing state in the 1880's. As depth was gained in the silver mines in certain parts of the district, occurrence of zinc minerals became troublesome. Zinc was not recoverable at the time, and in the chloridizing, roasting, and amalgamation of the ores, silver and gold recovery was greatly reduced. A period of active silver mining continued until 1892, when a decline in the price of silver brought the silver mining period to a close. Elsewhere in the district it was discovered that while some of the veins contained silver ores in the oxidized portions, the predominant minerals that were deeper were copper-bearing. Marcus Daly exposed rich copper ore on the 300 level of the Anaconda mine in 1891, and mining in the district disclosed that copper was destined to be developed in abundance. Early copper ore shipments were made to Swansea, Wales.

Jan 3, 1959

By Frank Rieber

EVERYONE is familiar with the story of the poor Indian and his leaking tepee. He couldn't repair the leak while it was raining, naturally. And when it wasn't raining, where was the incentive? Even if this traditional Indian was apochryphal, his counterparts are certainly alive today, and operating on a world-wide scale. - A recent issue of the Wall Street Journal, for example, carried an impassioned letter from an old cocoa planter, who wants the world to know why the price of cocoa has gone skyrocketing. For years, he says, British and American interests have bought cocoa at the cheapest possible price and, incidentally, from growers willing to sell at that price. Between them, they didn't put enough money back into the business, either to fight disease in the cocoa groves or to plant new cocoa trees. Until new trees are planted and come into bearing, we will be paying exorbitant prices for our cocoa, and getting less of it.

Jan 1, 1948

By A. H. Daane, R. L. Myklebust

The yttrium-manganese system has been investigated by thermal, metallographic, and X-ray diffraction methods. There are three intermetallic compounds present: YMn2 which melts congruently, YMn4, which undergoes syntectic decomposition, and YMn,, which undergoes peritectic decomposition. The compound YMn4 is ferromagnetic at room temperature with a Curie temperature of 214°C. There are eutectics at 25.2, 60.9, and 82.0 wt pct Mn which melt at 878°, 1100°, and 1075°C, respectively. Crys-tallographic data are given for YMn4, and YMn12 . The terminal solid solubilities are low. In a general program of study of yttrium metal in this laboratory some alloy systems of this metal with elements of the first transition period have been examined. This work was originally instigated by experiences in cladding yttrium with jackets of some protective metals such as Inconel for high-temperature service in air.' In some cases a low-melting phase was observed to form between the Inconel and the yttrium resulting in failure of the samples. In characterizing this reaction, a survey was made of the systems of yttrium with chromium, manganese, iron and nickel,, and it was found that a eutectic was formed between these metals and yttrium on the yttrium-rich side of the system. This present study of the Y-Mn system was carried out to examine in more detail the alloying nature of yttrium, and to correlate trends that have been observed in previous related studies. It was observed by Voge13 that in the systems of lanthanum, cerium, and praseodymium with each of the metals in the first transition series, the tendency to form compounds diminished in the order nickel, cobalt, and iron while no compounds were formed with manganese, chromium, or titanium. Beaudry and Daane4 observed a similar behavior in the systems of yttrium with some members of the first transition series except that the tendency for compound formation was greater. Both the Y-Ti5 and Y-Cra systems consist of simple eutectics, while in the Y-Fe,7 Y-CO, and Y-Ni4 systems, there are four, eight, and nine compounds, respectively. In addition to the above trends, the similar atomic radii and electronegativities of yttrium and thorium invite a comparison between their alloying behaviors with a common element such as manganese. In crys- tallographic studies, Florio et al.' have identified three intermediate phases in this system which are ThMn2, Th6Mn23, and ThMn,,. Gschneidner and Waber10 have examined published information on alloy systems of the rare-earth metals and have correlated this information with current alloying theory. From their study, they predicted that the Y-Mn system would contain one intermetallic compound. On the basis of this prediction, the trend in the alloying behavior of yttrium with the elements of the first transition series and the alloying behavior of thorium with manganese, one might expect from one to three intermetallic compounds to form in the Y-Mn system. A consideration of Hume-Rothery's rules of alloying based on size-factor, electronegativity, and valency suggested a small terminal solubility and possible compound formation. The present study was undertaken to confirm these predictions of low terminal solid solubility and compound formation and to establish the general alloying behavior of yttrium with manganese. EXPERIMENTAL Materials. The manganese used in this investigation was obtained from the Foote Mineral Co. as electrolytic plates of 99.9 pct stated purity; the yttrium metal was prepared in this laboratory. Table I gives the analyses of these materials. For the solubility studies at the yttrium-rich end of the alloy system, distilled yttrium, whose major impurity was 200 ppm Ti, was used. Preparation of Alloys. The alloys were formed by comelting the two metals in an are-melting furnace under an atmosphere of argon. The buttons thus formed were inverted and remelted three to five times to promote homogeneity. Due to the high vapor pressure of manganese, it was assumed that the weight lost during are-melting was all manganese. This assumption was based on the very good agreement observed between calculated compositions and chemical analyses of several alloys. The compositions of the dilute alloys used for solid solu-

Jan 1, 1962

By Sherwin F. Kelly

THE principal interest in the meeting sings arranged by the Geophysical Committee this year centered around the many papers dealing with the practical applications of geophysical methods to solving geological problems in many other parts of the world. The program Wednesday morning dealt with work in South Africa, Poland, and South America. Rudolph Krahmann's first paper gave a perspective of the geophysical investigations upon mineral deposits in South Africa. A striking point in his story was the tremendous increase in magnetic work during the last two or three years. This is largely accounted for by the intensive exploration for the extension of the Witwatersrand gold mining area. The author mentioned many surveys in which other methods were used for the search for ores of copper, lead, and zinc, and in the study of water-bearing and oil-bearing structures.

Jan 1, 1935

By FRANK RIEBERS

IN DISCUSSING the selection of a geophysical method, much of what the writer will say is applicable to any of the various methods and to their use in prospecting, whether for oil or for other minerals. Specifically, the writer's subject is the problem, particularly pressing on the Pacific Coast, of checking the rising cost of the discovery of new fields by the proper employment of geophysical methods. Table I was prepared from statistics published by the California State Milling Bureau. The writer selected five of the largest a:ld most active companies operating in California, segregated the number of wild-

Jan 1, 1930

By John D. Sullivan

ALUMINUM and magnesium plants in the United States underwent enormous wartime expansion which made many wonder if ghost plants would result when industry swung back to a peacetime basis. Production capacity of primary aluminum ingots was stepped up from 150,000 tons annually to about 1,150,000 tons; magnesium production increased from 2500 tons in 1936 to nearly 200,000 in 1943, with a production capacity of some 300,000 tons. Not only was primary metal production enlarged but also the capacity of prime fabrications such as castings, forgings, extrusions, and sheets was correspondingly increased. In mid-December it was estimated that production of primary aluminum ingots in the United States in 1946 will be about 410,000 tons while consumption will be about 500,000, close to half of the wartime consumption. The 1946 estimated consumption of secondary aluminum is 200,000 tons. The critical shortage of soda ash is hindering production of primary metal, and the outlook for an early relief of this shortage is dark.

Jan 1, 1947

By Eugene McAuliffe

MANAGEMENT and control of any body of workmen can be effected through various - well-known methods ' though many managers hold certain personal theories of control that range from an absolute dictatorship to what might be called the principle of laissez faire, or the "let alone" method. Managements of many mines, factories, smelters and refineries have been compelled in recent years to accept certain restrictions in hours of labor as well as in methods employed, imposed either by federal or state laws, or by labor agreements. Broadly speaking, regulations of the above character were brought on the industry by managers who failed to recognize fully the rights of their employees to proper sanitary, safe, and compensatory working conditions, as well as working hours that were proper and just. As an example of poor management and worse psychology, we have only to hark back to the days when many bituminous coal operators maintained an inadequate number of pit cars for the number of miners or loaders employed, or if the pit cars were available, the haulage facilities

Jan 1, 1934

By S. F. Shaw

IT IS generally recognized that the natural gas absorbed in petroleum plays the leading r6le in moving the oil through the sands to the well and supplies the energy that delivers the oil to the surface when the wells are flowing. It is the purpose of this paper to note the amount of oil that could be lifted by this gas if 100 per cent. efficiency were obtained and the efficiencies actually obtained in the use of this gas. An article in MINING AND METALLURGY,' stated that in a Wyoming field, with a pressure of 300 lb. per sq. in., there would be absorbed 65 cu. ft. of gas per barrel, or 1.55 cu. ft. per gal. of oil. The writer does not know if data have been obtained, by experiment, for pressures beyond those indicated in this article, therefore, for the purpose of illustration, he has projected this curve to obtain figures for pressures greater than 300 lb., although probably experiment will show that the extended line is not quite correct.

Jan 1, 1926

By WM. HUFF WAGNER

Computations and allowances for mine depletion for Federal income tax purposes depend upon the meaning of certain terms in the pertinent provisions of section 114(b) 4 of the Internal Revenue Code. Unfortunately, but one of these terms is defined in the Code. Congress left it to the Commissioner to define the other terms in the Regulations. Even though the Commissioner, through his staff, labored long and earnestly to draft these definitions they have not been satisfactory to the mining industry, because the definitions in the Regulations and the interpretation placed thereon by the Commissioner do not state what the industry believes to be the clear and obvious intent of Congress. Consequently serious and prolonged disputes, unduly delaying the settlement of Federal tax returns involving percentage depletion deductions are continually arising between taxpayers and the Commissioner.

Jan 1, 1949

By John G. Hall

The unstable metal market during 1949, with resulting lower metal prices, has focused every mine operator's attention on the problem of reducing operating costs. Improvement in mining, methods, use of modern mechanical mining equipment, and increasing the efficiency of the labor force are the tools with which we will have to work. Careful planning is necessary to coordinate all phases so that no one phase is overdone. A mine may become over-mechanized if, for instance, capital charges against new equipment exceed the savings in labor costs, or where a large enough tonnage is not produced. The cooperation, of labor is essential to any mechanization program. There have been too many instances where mechanization and improvements have done nothing more than make up for a decrease in labor efficiency, thus bringing the production of labor back to its old standard. The operator has gained little and labor has gained only a "softer job." In any mechanization program there are gains to be had by both the operator and labor. By the efficient application of modern equipment and improved mining methods the operator should gain by decreased costs, and labor may profit by receiving a share of these decreased costs.

Jan 1, 1950

By A. P. Svenningsen

DURING the work at the test mill in Morenci, it was determined that a suitable feed for the ball mills could be made by a single pass through a short-head cone crusher. These crushers did not require a closed circuit delivering only a screen product to the mills, such as is the practice in some concentrators. By no means does this mean that the practice in these other concentrators is wrong, but just that the Morenci ore can be most economically crushed and ground in this manner. Therefore, the design of the secondary crushing plant was simply a problem of taking 25,000 tons of ore per 16 hour day from the primary crusher, this ore ranging in size from fine particles to 10 or 12 in., and reducing it to minus 3/4 in. Inasmuch as outages must be contended with in any crushing plant, it was assumed that the crusher would operate at full capacity for approximately only twleve hours per day, which is three-quarter capacity for the 16-hour shift. With this in mind, it was necessary to design a crushing plant which would average approximately 1600 tones per hour for the 16-hour day, or 2000 tons per hour for slightly over 12 hours per day.

Jan 1, 1942

By ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS

AT various times during the past quarter century proposals have been made that the basic Federal mining law of 1872 be repealed or amended, and that in its place a new and simpler law be enacted to provide for the entry upon, working, and the taking up of claims on the unallotted Federal mining lands in our western states and in Alaska. Serious discussion and study have been given such proposals but little has resulted there from, except perhaps a lively interchange of opinion and the conclusion that though the Apex law of 1872 is in many ways highly unsatisfactory and frequently a fomenter of strife and trouble, it still bids fair to remain with us. Under this act a greater part of the non-ferrous mining industry of the United States has developed. With all its short-comings it is the legal bridge that has carried over the innumerable caravans of adventurers and prospectors who explored our mining frontiers. For without any amendments of substance this act has for fifty-eight years been the guide in the location of our western Federal mineral claims and has stood unchanged during the most important period of our mining history. While Federal and state acts and amendments have been ground out by thousands and tens -of thousands the mining act of 1872, with a :strange tenacity, has remained as constant as the Rock of Gibraltar, and under it states, mining districts, and local customs have developed different codes for its application but its fundamentals have been unaltered. "Use doth breed a habit in a man"; until now the application of the law of 1872 has become a second mining nature.

Jan 1, 1930

By John E. Caffrey

The Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969, Title III, Interim Mandatory Safety Standards for Underground Coal Mines, is devoted to protection of workmen from hazards of electricity, roof, ribs, fire, and explosions. The Rules and Regulations, promulgated through the Federal Register, provide the criteria by which the law would be administered. Certain aspects of the law involve features that could be summarized under entrapment. These are sections 303 (y)(1), (y)(2) and 317 (f) (4). This paper is intended through the use of the figures to describe how these features of the law affect mine ventilation design, what are the problems, and possible solutions to them.

Jan 1, 1974

YEAR OF ELECTION 1913. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS Montreal, Canada. 1921. WILLIAM CUTHBERT BLACKETT Sacriston, Durham, England. 1923. GELASIO CAETANI Rome, Italy. 1929. TAKUMA DAN Tokyo, Japan. 1920. HENRY STURGIS DRINKER Merion Station, Pa. 1922. FEDERICO GIOLITTI Torino, Italy. 1906. SIR ROBERT A. HADFIELD London, England. 1928. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND New York, N. Y. 1921. FRANK WILLIAM HARBORD London, England. 1917. HERBERT HOOVER Washington, D. C.. 1905. HENRI LECHATELIER Paris, France. 1900. WALDEMAR LINDGREN Cambridge, Mass. 1879. JOHN MARKLE New York, N. Y. 1921. C. MCDERMID London, England. 1913. EZEQUIEL ORDONEZ Mexico City, Mexico. 1909. ALEXANDRE POURCEL Paris, France. 1911. ROBERT H. RICHARDS Cambridge, Mass.

Jan 1, 1923

By Clyde Williams

IF you would allow me some liberties, I would restate the title of this talk as "Scientific Research, Our Greatest Resource," because that title would represent more clearly a present-day conception of the metals and minerals situation. It is a subject worthy of careful consideration. Canada and the United States are so similar and interdependent in their national economies that, in the following discussion, examples of conditions in the United States may be interpreted to apply to Canada as well. Moreover, it is a striking fact that the per capita value of mineral production in Canada and the United States in 1940 was almost the same. Therefore, in the consideration of this subject, I have made no attempt to differentiate between the two countries. Consumption of the world's mineral resources in the last few decades. and particularly during World War II, has been so enormous as to require some form of magic to ensure the continued progress of civilization in the face of a diminishing supply of these resources which are so critically essential. As C. K. Leith pointed out, in 1941, indus-

Jan 1, 1947

Edwin Ludlow, the forty-first President of the A. I. M. E., died in Muskogee, Okla., on Feb. 10, 1924, after a brief illness of influenza followed by pneumonia. He was born in Oakdale, N. Y. (on Long Island), March 12, 1858, a son of William Handy and Louise (Nicoll) Ludlow. He attended Flushing (L. I.) Institute 1868-75, and Columbia School of Mines (N. Y.) where he was graduated with the degree of Engineer of Mines with the Class of 1879. After graduation, his first employment was as assistant engineer in river and harbor work on the Delaware River near Philadelphia. In 1913

Jan 1, 1924