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By John V. Beall

GOING west from Denver on Route 6, the direct road to Grand Junction, one gets the first glimpse of mining a few miles east of Denver near Idaho Springs where the workings of defunct gold mines are visible on the sides of mountains along the highway. One enterprising company is turning a profit by showing tourists through the mine and mill and then selling them gold samples on the way out. We have always known that mining people are ingenious, but this proves it. About five and a half hours fast driving west from Denver brings one to Rifle, Colo., which is the site of the oil shale mine, retorting plant, and refinery of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. As you drive up to the mine, you can see a portal high on the face of the cliff in front of you where the mine surface plant literally hangs by its toenails. Below, the retorting plant and refinery gleam in the sunlight. Up at the mine, Fred Wright will show you how the oil shale is extracted in two benches (a third bench would be used for commercial mining) by the room-and-pillar method. In mining the top level, an underground crew of thirteen men have been able to produce 1500 tons of shale in each eight-hour shift. To do this, the mine is thoroughly mechanized. The mining method is de- scribed in the September issue of Mining Engineering.

Jan 1, 1949

By John V. Beall

Since the U. S. Metals Refining Co. works was established, around the turn of the century, near the town which is now called Carteret, N. J., it has grown to be a major producer of refined copper and the main source of that special brand known as "oxygen-free high-conductivity copper." Owing to the complex metallurgical problems arising from handling a variety of raw materials such as copper concentrate from Matahambre, Cuba, copper and brass scrap from the New York area, and domestic blister copper, the organization is geared from top management down through its 2000 employes to maintain a high degree of flexibility in plant operation. The Company is a subsidiary of The American Metal Co. Charges for the smelter furnaces, one reverberatory furnace and one blast furnace, are made up in. bedding bins so that they may be tailored to the production of a constant grade of blister copper. The reverberatory furnace smelts the .sulphide charge, which may be a blend of ten different materials but principally the Cuban concentrate, and the matte from the process is poured into a converter. This reverberatory is 80 by 20 ft, silica lined with a slag bottom, fired by pulverized coal, and continuously side-charged from the top by bottom-dump cars which keep the side walls covered. It produces a 40 to 50 per cent copper matte. The fuel-charge ratio is 4.35 tons of solid charge per ton of coal. The furnace has a capacity of 10,000 tons of charge per month and produces from 5000 to 6000 tons of slag per month which must be disposed of. About 5000 tons of converter slag is produced monthly and returned molten to the reverberatory furnace. The converter gases go through a spray chamber to a Cottrell precipitator and thence to the flue system. Smoke from the

Jan 1, 1948

By Frank D. Adams

The Island of Ceylon, which is one of the most beautiful possessions of the British Empire, has been an abode of man from the very earliest times. The Veddhas, a wild tribe of some 4500 people still living in the fastnesses of the jungle in east central portion of the island, are believed to represent a remnant of the oldest inhabitants of which we have any actual knowledge, but in the caves in which they live there are found the stone axes and other implements of Palaeolithic people who represent the first race of men who inhabited our globe, and of whom they may be, for all that is known, the direct descendants. About the fifth century before Christ there came the Aryan invaders, apparently from the north of India, who drove the Veddhas into the remote fastnesses of the jungle and developed the remarkable Singhalese civilization whose high character is demonstrated by the remarkable and very extensive system of irrigation works which they built up, and through which they made the island wonderfully productive. Great cities arose, some of which are believed to have had a population of over a million souls and whose temples and public buildings show that the people were accomplished architects and sculptors.

Jan 1, 1926

By S. Uludag

Spontaneous combustion of coal has been studied by laboratory techniques using an apparatus in a small-scale laboratory testing. Coal?s inherent characteristics can be measured using Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and Crossing Point Temperature (CPT) methods. The DTA curve obtained after testing is compared with actual inherent moisture and its effect on spontaneous combustion has been investigated. It has been found that the Wits-Ehac Index increases as the inherent moisture of the sample increases. Therefore it can be deduced that liability to spontaneous combustion increases with increased inherent moisture. In addition, volatiles have a catalytic affect on self heating immediately after the inherent moisture is reduced. This is identified as stage two in the thermogram. The inherent moisture has a cooling effect during the initial stages of testing and is visible in the DTA thermogram. In addition, while an increase in carbon content means an increase in Wits-Ehac Index value, an ash content decreases the likelihood of on spontaneous combustion. Keywords: Spontaneous Combustion, Differential Thermal Analysis, Crossing Point Temperature, Moisture, Coal, Laboratory Testing.

Jan 1, 2007

By E. Rezazadeh Azar

Dump trucks are the main mean for hauling earth material within and outside of the construction and open-pit mining jobsites. The real-time monitoring of the material transportation trips is beneficial for proactive equipment management, volume estimation, and productivity measurement. The traditional manual observation is tedious, non-real-time, and expensive; therefore remote sensing technologies, namely GPS and RFID, have been employed for this reason. Ordinary construction videos are another costeffective alternative to monitor dirt loading and hauling operations in real-time. A vision-based system has been developed to recognize and count hauling trips. This system has three modules including object detection, tracking, and action recognition. This system processes videos taken from access roads in which it recognizes dump trucks and then tracks them throughout the viewfinder. The action recognition module is designed to reject false alarms and also terminate tracking. This way, the system is able to count the number of hauling trips and also record the time between each trip. Several state of the art computer vision algorithms were employed to develop this system. Some of these algorithms were modified using spatiotemporal information to minimize the inherent errors of the vision-based methods. The experimental results showed considerable performance of the system for practical application in the construction and mining sectors.

Aug 1, 2013

By Jia-Shyan Shiau, Chung-Ken Ho

An uneven gas distribution through the burden layers inside a blast furnace (BF) results in abnormal gas resistance or pressure changes. Rapid variations in the abnormal gas resistance will lead to the occurrence of channeling. A visualization technology mainly made of pressure distribution was developed to predict BF channeling phenomena in this study. The real-time data of BF shaft pressure was used to create a 3D visual model by neural network algorithms and 3D real-time BF pressure changes were observed. The root mean square deviation (RMSD) of the BF shaft pressure was used as an index to set up the predicting criteria of channeling occurrence with the opening of BF Annular Gap Element (AGE), and a predicting system based on the criteria was built. The two criteria for the channeling alarm are the RMSD of the BF shaft pressure (> 0.15 kg/cm2 ) at the upper two levels, and the AGE opening being greater than 60%. This system has been installed in the China Steel Corporation (CSC) BFs, and the test results showed that a prediction can be obtained 8 to 16 min ahead of channeling allowing sufficient time for the operator to adjust the BF operation in order to avoid the occurrence of channeling.

By K. R. Miller

Thunder Basin Coal Company has two mines located in the southern portion of the Powder River Basin. 60-90 km southeast of Gillette, Wyoming. The mines are principally located on federal coal leases acquired in the late-1960's. Development plans for the Black Thunder Mine focused on dragline stripping, but environmental considerations during the mid-1970's made truck-shovel stripping the method of choice when the mine opened in 1976. In 1981, the Coal Creek Mine opened as the first dragline mine in the Gillette area of the Powder River Basin. The regional terrain is flat-lying with occasional clinker-capped hills. The mines are located on the Wasatch and Fort Union Formation contact. The coals are Paleocene in age and the deposits are structurally simple, dipping gently to the west. The seams are thick and are classified as sub-bituminous-C. The Black Thunder Mine, with its 21 m thick seam, is strategically located in the center of the highest heat value mining area of the southern Powder River Basin.

Jan 1, 1993

By Harold S. King

TWO summers ago I had the privilege of visiting No. 18 colliery at Glace Bay. Underground, we travelled along the haulage-way behind a powerful electric locomotive. The motor in this locomotive began to smoke badly and a carbon tetrachloride type of extinguisher was used several times during the trip. At the time, I noted a strong odour of phosgene. On my return to Sydney, I spoke to Mr. Harold Gordon, Assistant to the General Manager of the Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation, and warned him of the danger of using this type of fire extinguisher in confined spaces, since it is a well known chemical fact that phosgene, a dangerously toxic gas, is formed by the decomposition of carbon tetrachloride. This danger does not seem to be widely recognized, so it seems advisable that a more general warning be published. Attention was first drawn to the danger by the death of two men in the United States Navy Department subsequent to breathing fumes from carbon tetrachloride used in a fire, and when an employee of the Bureau of Mines also was overcome while fighting a fire with carbon tetrachloride liquid. These accidents led to an investigation of the decomposition products of carbon tetrachloride by a group of workers in the Research Laboratory of the Pittsburgh Experimental Station, U.S. Bureau of Mines, the results of which were published in the October, 1920, number of the Journal of the .Franklin Institute (1). Their experiments were conducted by two methods. The first consisted in applying the liquids to actual fires and -to hot metal in a closed room of 1,000 feet capacity, where the gaseous products, mixed with air, could be retained and analyzed. The second method was to pass the vapour:s in air through heated tubes of iron or quartz, where the humidity of the air and the temperature could be controlled.

Jan 1, 1939

By Robert Glass Cleland

FROM the time of its organization down to 1917, a period of more than eighty years, Phelps, Dodge & Co. was seldom involved in what could be called a major labor difficulty. Behind this remarkable record lay both a philosophy and its practical application. The philosophy was an attitude toward society called the Golden Rule. That philosophy had been a living principle in the lives of the founders of the company, Anson Phelps, Daniel James, and William E. Dodge. Their successors, William E. Dodge, Jr., and Daniel Willis James, accepted the same philosophy. Dr. James Douglas governed his life by it. All of these men and their families had given tangible expression to that conviction in benefactions of great magnitude and variety-churches, hospitals, educational institutions, libraries, missionary undertakings, and other organizations for human betterment, such as the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian Associations, and the development of model communities about their mills and factories. According to the best standards of their generation, they had sought to improve the condition of labor,

Jan 1, 1952

By J J. Boshoff

This iron ore mine site, located in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, commenced operations in 1998, with ore derived by mining of open-cut pits in Channel Iron Deposits (CIDs). A portion of the ore extracted at the mine is processed at wet processing plants that produce both ore saleable product and waste fines (i.e. tailings) slurry. The waste fines produced at the wet plants are presently stored within Waste Fines Cells (WFCs).Waste fines cells A (WFCA) and B (WFCB) are located within an Autonomous Haul System (AHS) area and consist of embankments that span the width of the pit in east-west alignments. Technical studies and design analyses were carried out to support embankment raises and ongoing development of the WFCs. During operation and development of the WFCs, a multitude of simultaneous activities took place to the immediate north and south of WFCA respectively. These activities included the construction of the embankment raises using the AHS fleet, mining of the CID to not only mine the ore but to also create future deposition space for WFCB, blasting next to the WFC embankments as part of the mining activities, seepage collection and dewatering of the pit in the vicinity of the WFC.This paper discusses the material characteristics, design approach, construction staging and equipment requirements, blasting near embankments, water management, facility consequence category and closure concept.CITATION:Boshoff, J J, 2018. A waste fines cell with a multitude of concurrent activities, in Proceedings Mine Waste and Tailings Stewardship Conference 2018, pp 39–49 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 23, 2018

By Dan Mancuso

This case study is an example of how Encyle/Texas, Inc. (a subsidiary of ASARCO) responded to various socio-economic forces by converting an idle zinc hydrometallurgical refinery into a metals recycling facility. The facility accepts metal-laden process waste streams and produces various "synthetic ores" which are sold back to industry. Acceptance and reactions by industrial, political, economical and regulatory interests towards the project are also discussed.

Jan 1, 1992

By C J. Moran

Given that the mining industry is committed to sustainable development principles and that Australia is experiencing changes to the regulatory environment that aim to modernise the water sector and encourage adoption of consistent approaches, there is a well defined need for the Australian minerals industry to develop a water accounting framework. This requires: key terms and definitions for water metrics for use in the Australian minerals industry that is consistent with the wider water sector, a suite of metrics representing key components of an operationÆs water balance, a calculation method for some of the metrics, and a reporting protocol. This paper presents the methodology that was used to derive these four components. Existing accounting frameworks were reviewed and key terms and definitions that were consistent with current requirements were proposed. A calculation methodology was developed to obtain some of the key indicators and variables that cannot be easily measured directly (water loss through evaporation is an example). The adopted terms and definitions dictated model development, with the conclusion that a systems approach was the most effective calculation process. To test the proposed definitions and calculation methodology, values for water metrics were derived for eight sites. The proposed framework and definitions could deal with the specific situations selected as case studies. The associated calculation methodology produced complete accounts at various levels. Some elements of the accounts could be directly checked against available data and simulations. The framework captured well variations in the reuse efficiencies; reuse efficiency could even vary for similar processes. It is concluded that this preliminary accounting framework provides a consistent language and metrics for quantifying and communicating water management, both at the intersection of the site with the surrounding landscape (through detailed reporting of site inputs and outputs) and within operational activities. Using this consistent framework for quantifying and documenting water use within an operation will provide a platform for compiling and comparing minerals industry water use with other sectors. This may support benchmarking activities within regions or companies and help demonstrate leadership amongst water users in water resource stewardship. The approach presented here is applicable to a wide variety of mining and processing activities, and biophysical environments, and can be adopted as the first step towards developing national water accounts for the Australian Minerals Industry.

Jan 1, 2009

By P. Sauriol

This work addresses the design challenges and demonstrates the capabilities of a novel water transfer factor measurement apparatus. Several measurement concepts were screened on the basis of their water transfer factor accuracy using Monte-Carlo generated virtual experiments. The most promising measurement concept was assembled and tested to assess its actual measurement accuracy. For these concept validation experiments, the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell was simulated by adjusting the water injection rate to corresponding levels. Combining the anode and cathode measurements, the water transfer factor accuracy was typically better than 0.01. Real-time measurements of the water transfer factor on both anode and cathode sides of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell were achieved. The anode and cathode side measurements were in good agreement with each other; however the anode side measurements were generally more reproducible. A parametric study showed that stream humidification plays an important part in the water transfer across the membrane electrode assembly. Finally the water transfer factor along the channel of a 300cm2 co-current fuel cell was obtained by using a series of six 50cm2 sub cells. The results were in good agreement with predictions from a recently proposed model.

Jan 1, 2005

By A. D. Davis

This project took a watershed approach in the evaluation of water-quality impacts from past mining activities and current restoration projects in the Bear Butte Creek basin, a small and well defined drainage in a heavily mineralized area of the northern Black Hills. The basin contains numerous inactive and abandoned mines as well as a currently active heap-leach surface gold mine. Bear Butte Creek normally loses all of its discharge to sinkholes in the Madison Limestone aquifer and thus can affect the water quality of this regionally important water resource. Water-quality data were analyzed, stream surveys were conducted, and two abandoned mine restoration projects were monitored to evaluate the effectiveness of the watershed approach and to identify practical remediation techniques that could be applied to other watersheds. A geographic information system (GIS) was developed to organize information on stream quality, abandoned mine locations, and other geologic and hydrologic data. The watershed approach toward assessing and reclaiming abandoned mines appears to be effective when compared to a point-source approach that might improve water quality at specific sites but not result in significant overall improvement to the watershed because of adjacent sources.

Jan 1, 1997

"When boring a tunnel, homogeneous hard rock is the exception rather than the rule. While contractors can set goals such as meters per month and performance incentives, it is also prudent to plan for difficult ground. A properly designed tunnel boring machine (TBM) can tackle fault zones, water inflows, squeezing ground, or whatever the risk may be. The alternative is not a good one: modifying the machine in the tunnel after bad ground is encountered. Not only does this result in increased downtime, but it also needlessly exposes the crew to the tunnel conditions. In the worst case scenario, the entire operation grinds to a halt.However, an accurate GBR cannot always be obtained, particularly for mountainous, high cover tunnels in remote locations. And even with a thorough GBR, unforeseen geological events can occur. What can be done in these situations? Difficult Ground Solutions (DGS) is ground investigation system with a suite of options that can be added to a shielded hard rock machine or dual-mode, Crossover machine to better enable advance when conditions are unknown or difficult conditions are anticipated.DGS consists of a set of integrated features tailored to a specific project’s geology. The main components of the system allow for ground investigation ahead of the TBM, increased monitoring and methods to keep a machine shield from becoming stuck.In fault zones and squeezing groundIf fault zones or squeezing ground are known or suspected, or if there is even a possibility of encountering them, this can greatly affect the TBM operation. Shielded machines protect the crew from the surrounding rock, and they can bore and line a tunnel efficiently, but in fault zones and converging material their shields can be their downfall. Avoiding a stuck machine is paramount to project success. DGS employs several features to avoid the problem of a machine becoming stuck. The first of these is multi-speed cutterhead drives. These drives effectively give the machine multiple modes of operation—high speed, low torque for hard rock, and low speed, high torque for difficult ground. Designing a machine with high-torque, continuous boring capabilities allows that machine’s cutterhead to restart with break-out torque in difficult ground. The net effect is that the machine can keep boring in the event of a face collapse and can bore through fault zones and running ground where the potential for cutterhead jamming exists. Going one step further, multi-speed gearboxes give the machine the ideal earth pressure balance- (EPB-) type torque if larger sections of soft ground are anticipated.Secondly, TBMs can get through squeezing ground and faults using Continuous Shield Advance. This design utilizes a stepped shield configuration — where each successive shield is slightly smaller in diameter — to avoid becoming stuck in converging ground. External shield lubrication is an added insurance against becoming stuck, using a series of radial ports that can pump Bentonite into the annular space to act as a lubricant in squeezing material.As a last effort, if a machine has already become stuck the TBM can utilize augmented, or “super” thrust. Additional thrust jacks can be added to supply an extra boost in a short stroke, generating enough force to break loose a trapped shield."

Jan 12, 2017

By C. Ware, R. Uken, G. Whitmore

The coastal dune cordon of northern KwaZulu-Natal is among the highest in the world reaching heights in excess of 180 m and up to 2 km in width. It comprises a complex system of Quaternary stacked dunes of various geomorphologies, types and ages (Sudan, 1999; Maud and Botha, 2002;Ware et al., 2001; Ware, 2003). The dunes contain economic heavy minerals that have been exploited for the last two and a half decades. Dune units have recently been defined based on sand composition and texture(Sudan, 1999; Ware, 2003). Despite this, little work has been undertaken on the clay-fraction (< 2 um). This work documents the weathering of dunes to form clays. From the documented clay assemblages and relative abundances, a simplified weathering sequence with increasing maturity can be summarized as follows: primary minerals ? illite + vermiculite ?illite +interstratifications ?illite + montmorillonite ?halloysite + interstratifications + kaolinite ?kaolinite. The dominant controlling factors in determining clay assemblages is pH and leaching conditions. The presence of carbonates results in an alkaline pH and high concentrations of Ca2+and Mg2+which favours the formation of montmorillonite and vermiculite. However, vermiculite tends to form under slightly acidic conditions and is indicative of palaeosols where organic acids produce localized acidic pH’s. In contrast to this, kaolinite will only form and concentrate when carbonates have been leached. Kaolinite dominated samples are considered very mature under current climatic conditions(Chamley, 1989). Halloysite represents a transitional phase between montmorillonite and kaolinite (Herbillon et al., 1981). Ion mobility and evacuation is also critical in determining clay assemblages. Past work and field studies indicate that the dune cordon acts as an open system, resulting in carbonates and mobile ions being readily leached and lost from the system. However, when prolonged weathering has caused an accumulation of fine-grained material, the permeability decreases substantially whereby mobile cations and silica cannot be readily evacuated. This results in the formation of montmorillonite rather than kaolinite, even when carbonates have been leached. Illite (sericite) is considered to alter directly from feldspars. However, dune stacking and geometries, vegetation, water fluxes, reworking and erosion complicates this sequence.

Jan 1, 2003

By Xu H.

In recent years, the mineral applications dealing with more complex data in distributed environment have grown rapidly. Many mineral and mining organizations have to organize internally and globally distributed manufacturing and experiment sites, which share the roles of databases and other multi-services like software programs. Thus, there are commercial and technical pressures pushing the mineral software vendors to move their current service toward Web service. XML has gained wide acceptance for representing, storing and transferring structured data and documents of many kinds, especially in scientific communities. However, so far there is no such a Markup Language in mineral industry. A XML-based uniform encoding, which is called MineML(Mineral Markup Language), is proposed and developed in this project. The framework of the MineML specification is created. MineML will play the role as shared protocols within mineral domain for archiving, transferring the multi-nature data between the software packages on the desktop over the Internet and sharing the services between users at different sites. Inspired by MLA’s (Mineral Liberation Analyser, JKMRC, University of Queensland, Australia) Mineralogical Data Presentation Program, a proof-of-concept prototype of Web Service is developed here to validate and demonstrate the MineML specification. Certain strategies, specific technologies and tools are adopted to create such an environment. To accomplish that, a set of experimental MineML documents including correlated XML, XSD (schemas) and XSL(stylesheets) documents have been elaborated for archiving, presenting and transferring the mineralogical data information, with the persistence on flexibility and extensibility for generic mineral and mining data handling.

Jan 1, 2003

By Dave Shook

A Mineral Processing facility in Montreal has recently implemented a leading-edge intranet solution for monitoring the performance of plant operations, and providing condition-based maintenance. This innovative multi-faceted software implementation incorporates: web-delivered plant information systems; area-wide control loop performance assessment (using sophisticated algorithms to evaluate poorly performing controllers); and integrated alarm management functions. The system has enabled a project to improve plant operations through better process control. Maintenance technicians, engineers, supervisors and managers all can see the performance of the controllers, and the performance of the plant itself, through webdelivered graphics and reports. Information is combined from many sources, real-time, historical, relational and analytical, to provide a complete picture of plant operation. The web-based solution centralizes the administration of user access, and simplifies the deployment of several different kinds of information to many desktops. It is an extensible system that allows users to create and share their own web pages and data views. The paper will discuss the solution architecture and the improvements the I.T., operations, maintenance, and engineering groups have experienced, and overall benefits to the facility.

May 1, 2002

By G. Capobianco

"The coal industry is an important part of Canada&apos;s economy - as an energy source, employer, and generator of export earnings. Coal comprises 71% of our fossil energy and with rapidly advancing handling and burning technology will clearly play a major role in our national energy mix, eventually as synthetic gases and liquids.International coal markets are very competitive and Canada is disadvantaged by long rail hauls to port, and a heavy tax burden. However, high mine productivity has allowed us to increase our markets.Currently, domestic markets are dominated by coal use for electrical generation, a market with significant growth opportunities.Strong growth is expected in export thermal markets, while metallurgical coal demand is projected to show little or no growth in the medium term. IntroductionThe coal industry is a vital part of the Canadian energy scene .• Coal supplies 17% of Canada&apos;s energy.• On a per capita basis, Albertans use more energy in the form of coal than they do oil and gas.• The value of Canada&apos;s exports of coal last year was equal in value to all the cars we imported from Japan.• Coal is our largest single export to our seco nd largest trading partner, Japan.• The value of coal produced in Canada exceeds the value of any other single mineral produced in thi s country.• In Alberta, the safety record for coal mines is on a par with that of department store clerks.• The coal industry employs about 25% of the total number of people employed in all metal mines in Canada, directly and indirectly accounting for about 50 000 jobs.Coal comprises 71% of Canada&apos; s hydrocarbon energy resources on a crude oil equivalent basis . This is more than double our oil sands resource and dwarfs our conventional crude oil and gas resources (Fig. I). In the short term, coal as a solid fuel plays a significant part in the Canadian energy scene. In the longer term, coal, in the form of electricity and eventually liquids and gases, has a tremendous role to play. In 1986, Canada produced 57.8 million tonnes, slightly down from the record high of 60.8 million tonnes in 1985. Our exports in 1986 were 26.0 million tonnes, a growth of 53% in three years."

Jan 1, 1988

By William C. Baldwin

Unitization and containerization continue to grow with great rapidity throughout the world today. Every industrial nation outside of the Iron Curtain is devoting more and more time toward research of these developing sciences. Unitization and containerization are proving to be the solution to many of modern industry&apos;s most pressing handling and shipping problems. Manufacturers make large savings, carriers receive many benefits, and customers take an increasing interest in demanding that their shipments either be unitized or containerized. Unit-loads consist of items, packages or bulk materials pre-assembled into a convenient mass for handling by mechanized equipment and to fit the internal dimensions of carriers. It has been found that unitized handling and shipping offers cost savings too great to be ignored by anyone interested in the distribution of goods. At present, the benefits from unitized shipping and handling are being enjoyed only to a small extent due to the failure of many persons concerned with handling practices in recognizing only some of the advantages of unitization. Before the full benefits of unitized handling and shipping can be realized, some major changes in packaging and distribution practices will be necessary on the part of industry. Numerous investigations in the last two years show conclusively that there are more advantages and more inherent savings for shipping goods on pallets in unit loads than by any other method. There is no question that unit-load handling can offer significant advantages to the user over piece-by-piece package handling. Reduction in handling costs is the primary objective of such activities, but it is by far not the sole objective. Some of the other benefits that can be realized are:

Jan 1, 1973