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By AIME AIME

TWO papers, "Calcium, Strontium, and Barium Metals," by Charles Hardy and Paul M. Tyler, and "The Mining of Gems and Ornamental Stones by American Indians," by Sydney H. Ball, were presented before the Rare Minerals and Metals group at its session Tuesday afternoon in the Auditorium. Donald M. Liddell, chairman, presided. Mr. Tyler summarized the first paper, outlining the uses, history, occurrence, manufacture, production and trade, markets and prices of the three metals. In discussion, in response to the chairman's query on "what are they doing in Russia with calcium, strontium, and barium," Guy C. Riddell replied that nothing is being done on a production basis. The great rare metals plant in Moscow is active, however, on other elements. "They are making radium chloride, uranium oxide, vanadium, cadmium, tungsten, molybdenum, selenium, antimony compounds; and mercury, nickel and arsenic are under production at interior plants. The rare metals plant is busily conducting research on beryllium, rhenium, lithium, bismuth, strontium and zirconium. These are the main rare metal activities. Much hard-alloy work. for cutting and facing, is under way:

Jan 1, 1933

By W. C. Clark, J. B. Schloen

Two papers have been written, previously concerning operations at the Montreal East plant of Canadian Copper Refiners Limited. The first one,' written in 1932, described silver-refinery operations at the time for producing silver and gold bullion from tankhouse anode slimes; the second,Z published in 1933, consisted of a description of the entire plant. Since publication of these papers the refinery has become the world's largest producer of refined selenium. The first selenium was produced in August 1934. Tellurium production on a commercial scale followed in October 1935. This paper will deal with selenium and tellurium production and also with present operations in the silver refinery. Blister cakes from Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co., Flin Flon, Manitoba, and commercial anodes from Noranda Mines Limited, Noranda, Quebec, are refined at Montreal East. Both these bullions have unusually high gold, selenium and tellurium content. The average assay of raw slimes produced from domestic and Noranda anodes is about 40 per cent Cu, 3600 oz. per ton Ag, 800 ox. per ton Au, 22 per cent Se and 3.7 per cent Te. Early Silver-refinery Operations From the start of operations in 1931 until July 1934, the raw slimes were oxidiae-roasted at 700' F. in a Nichols-Herreshoff furnace, acid-leached with tankhouse discarded foul electrolyte (20 per cent HzSOa), filtered and charged directly to the dor6 furnace for refining to dore metal. This is the customary method for treating tankhouse anode slimes but was not suitable at the Montreal East plant because of the high selenium and tellurium content of our slimes. In the acid-leaching process about 50 per cent of the selenium and tellurium in the roasted slimes was dissolved in the electrolyte. These elements were recovered with the copper as a sludge in a small electrolytic

Jan 1, 1944

By Henry M. Rowe

Professor Ruff's most illuminating paper' describing his extremely valuable investigation of the carbon-iron equilibrium diagram assigns definite temperatures to certain very important lines in the diagram, viz.: the eutectic temperature EB (Fig. 1) and the " near-eutectic " temperature E'B', but without indicating clearly enough the reasoning which warrants these assignments. These temperatures are of such primary importance that it is well to indicate the apparent gaps in the reasoning, in the hope that they may be filled in. In his diagram, Fig. 1, the point X and the liues B'D'lII represent the experimental results reached by Ruff and Goecke;a AB, AEB, and SE represent the liquidus, the solidus, and the solubility of the carbon in solid austenite in the absence of graphite according to Gutowsky,3 AB being also in accordance with Spiecker's data; S'E' the solubility of carbon in solid austenite in the presence of graphite according to Ruer and Iljin;5 GS the line A3 after Ooerens and Meyer; 6 and EBC the true eutectic line as inferred by Prof. Ruff from Gutowsky's data. B'D' is the carbon content found in cast-iron which had apparently saturated itself with carbon in the presence of the graphite of the enclosing graphite crucibles in which the determinations were made. From its straightiiess and its sharp inflection near 6.67 per cent. of carbon, the carbon content of

Jan 1, 1913

By H. H. Stoek, G. W. Harries

The term " Anthracite Coal-Field " is generally used to refer to a comparatively small territory lying in the eastern-central part of Pennsylvania. This territory includes about 3,300 sq. miles of area, located chiefly in five counties in which anthracite-mining is the dominant industry. Although an area of 3,300 sq. miles is embraced in the region, less than one-fifth of this area, or only 484 sq. miles, is underlain by workable coal-seams. Moreover, this prorluctive portion is not a continuous area, but consists of a number of detached basins. These are known as the Northern, containing 176 sq. miles; Eastern-Middle, containing 133 sq. miles; Southern, containing 181 sq. miles; and western-Middle,containing 194 sq. miles. From the standpoint of business and trade, the region is divided into three districts, known as (1) the Wyoming, which includes the Northern field and the small Bernice basin; (2) the Lehigh region, which includes all of the Eastern Middle field and that part of the Southern field east of Tamaqua; and (3) the Schuylkill region, which includes the WesL ern-Middle field and that part of the Southern field west of Tamaqua. The relative commercial importance of these districts at the present time is shown by the coal-shipments as given in the following table :

Jan 1, 1904

By Richard H. Olson

"Rarely in our technological society does the discovery of a new class of inorganic materials result in such a wide scientific interest and kaleidoscopic development of applications as has happened with the zeolite molecular sieves." The foregoing, the opening sentence in a landmark volume on zeolite molecular sieves by D. W. Breck (1974), is, if anything, an understatement. Zeolites were recognized as a new group of minerals in the 1750s, but it was not until 1930 that the first analysis of the crystal structure of a zeolite mineral was made. In the late 1940s research workers at Union Carbide Corp. began a program of zeolite synthesis and study which has resulted in one of the major research achievements of all time. Naturally, with the vast research and development efforts devoted to the synthetic molecular sieves, Union Carbide became concerned in the mid-1950s about its position should minable deposits of natural analogues be discovered. Zeolite minerals have diverse origins, and even a brief discussion of these is beyond the scope of this paper. The early work on zeolites was confined to igneous rock occurrences (e.g., amygdules and veins) which were formed by "space-filling;" these crystals tend to be euhedral, thereby rendering them appealing to both mineralogists and collectors. During the first year or so of Union Carbide's exploration (which began in mid-1957) attention was devoted solely to such igneous occurrences. A landmark paper by Bramlette and Posnjak (1933) heralded the potential significance of the occurrence of zeolite minerals as alteration products of vitric ash and similar materials. In the summer of 1958, full attention was directed by Union Carbide to the search for deposits of this type in the western United States. Since then, such exploration has been continu-

Jan 1, 1975

By Brian R. Castle, James J. Scott

INTRODUCTION Referring to a ground support system as a 'band-aid' borders on getting cute, but the application of cable slings in U.S. mining is somewhat analogous. Where problems in the roof or rib require additional support, the versatile cable sling is the answer in a variety of conditions. To fully understand how and why cable slings are used today we must briefly review their development history. Much of the thrust over the last five to seven years in ground support fixtures has been the development of hybrid systems. Taking the best of two or more existing roof bolt fixtures and marrying them into a new fixture which exhibits the good characteristics without the bad of the parent systems. Resin point anchored mechanical bolts, continuous threaded rebar bolts, and others have all be- come important fixtures in rock mass stabilization. HYBRID GROUND SUPPORT SYSTEM The cable sling system is also a hybrid, both in its parentage and in its ground support characteristics. See figure 1. Cable slings combine the techniques of cement. grouting high-strength cables, Friction Rock Stabilizers, and truss-like suspension into a versatile and high- strength ground support system. 1/2" high-strength cable is cement grouted in place in a manner similar to pre-

Jan 1, 1983

By Frederic E. Carter

THERE have been many attempts to prove that platinum was known to the ancients, but since no traces of the metal have been found in the relics of early times, it must be concluded that it was not known to them. As far as records go, it was actually first discovered in the 16th century in a Spanish mine on the Pinto River in South America; from which source it received its name of Platina del Pinto (little silver from the Pinto). It was more or less of a rarity and was a subject of interest to a few chemists only, until the year 1822 when the metal was first discovered in Russia. In 1819 there were noticed in the washings of the gold sands of the southern part of the Ural Mountains, grains of a heavy white substance, but it was not until three years later that this substance was found to contain platinum. While at first the amounts of platinum brought from the Urals were meager, prospecting soon disclosed rich deposits extending over a considerable area, and nuggets from 10 to 20 lb. were by no means rare. This discovery assured to chemists an ample supply of platinum for their crucibles, etc. The ore is now found in various parts of the world but the richest deposits are still found in the Ural Mountains. The platinum of commerce is obtained entirely from alluvial deposits at depths varying from 6 to 40 ft. The sand and gravel of former river beds are subjected to a series of screenings and washings to effect the separation of the ore. Actually, probably all gold-bearing gravel beds of the world contain platinum, and it is more than likely that large quantities of platinum ore have been thrown away with the black sand washings from gold placer deposits. This is especially true of the alluvial deposits of the Pacific Coast in California and Oregon. Platinum ore is usually found in the form of rounded or flattened grains of "sand," and occasionally in irregular lumps of the size of peas. Large nuggets are very rare. The ore has a metallic luster and is distinguished by its steel gray color, but shows light gray streak when rubbed on a hard white surface; it has a high specific gravity, 16 to 19; is infusible in the hottest blast furnaces, and insoluble in any single acid. Platinum ore is a complex body consisting of the metal in combination with varying proportions of the other members of the platinum group; iridium,

Jan 1, 1928

By T. L. Joseph

A DEMAND for specialized knowledge has directed engineering curricula towards competency in some particular field or occupation. Preparation for life in a broad sense of completeness has received little consideration. Ways and means are needed for weaving some of the threads of liberal education into the fabric of engineering education. Any effort to develop a humanistic-social stem of engineering education will depend largely upon the content of the courses and the type of instruction offered. Many of the courses in college curricula are intended to lay a foundation for more advanced courses to be taken later by those. who specialize in some particular field. Students in other fields lack the background necessary to take the advanced courses and have too much detailed information, soon forgotten, forced upon them if they pursue the foundation courses. To develop a humanistic-social stem for engineering education existing catalogue courses selected should follow some general plan aimed towards broad educational objectives. Courses packed with detailed factual information are necessary for the stu-

Jan 1, 1947

By R. Kossowsky

Structural changes in Be-Cu, Be-Ni. Be - Ag, and Be-Fc alloys pressurized in a solid medium were invesligated by resistivity measurements , X-ray diffrac lion in situ and metallogvaphic examination. Some limited tests in liquid medium were also conducted. Good correlation was oblained between diauges of slope of relative resistance us pressure and changes in diffraction pattern. Metallographic examination rez:ealed that the copper, silver, and nickel alloys lwiu heauily due to the applicalion of pressure at room temperature. Using polarized light technique {1012}, {1011}, and possible {1010} twinning planes were identified. At eleuated temperature twinning was moslly confined to the {1012} planes. Although twin-ning could be promoted by application of hydroslutic pvessure (liquid medium), it was strongly enhanced by the pvesence of a nonhydvostatic shear component due to pressurizalion in a solid medium. It was further obserced that a decrease in grain size inlnibiled twinnitzg activily. A great deal of effort has been expended in recent years to render beryllium useful for structural applications. Efforts were concentrated towards a possible phase change and to promoting other than basal deformation modes. Quenching experiments to obtain the high-temperature bcc phase have failed,' nor were alloying additions successful in improving ductility of the brittle hcp phase.2 Herman et a1.3 have reported a new {1011} twinning mode in a Be-4.4 wt pct Cu alloy oriented for a C axis compression sustaining loads to 440,000 psi. A new approach using high-pressure techniques was undertaken at Curtiss-Wright, Wright Aeronautical Division Laboratories. Marder4 reported a 25 pct decrease in relative resistance of commercially pure beryllium at 92 kbar. He proposed that this discontinuity corresponded to the bcc phase found at high temperature; however, X-ray diffraction in silu did not confirm a phase transition.5 contre6 has recently shown that the bcc transition in pure beryllium is lowered to 800°C at 80 kbar accompanied by a 50 pct increase in relative resistance. The purpose of this paper is to report on one phase of an investigation of the effects of high pressures and temperatures in beryllium alloys, namely, twinning behavior in Be-Ni, Be-Cu, Be-Fe, and Be-Ag alloys pressurized to nearly 100 kbar and temperatures up to 200°C. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Material was obtained from Nuclear Metals, Inc., in the form of a 1.5-mm-diam wire extruded in stainless-steel cladding at 1600° F. Nominal composition of the alloys is listed in Table I, and the major impurities are are given in Table 11. Pressures to 100 kbar* were ob- tained using a National Bureau of Standards type 100/400 ton tetrahedral unit supplied by Barogenics, Inc. This type of apparatus contains a retaining sleeve with a conically tapered internal surface and four pressure-intensifying anvil assemblies with tungsten carbide tips. The 10-mm-long specimen fits into a pyro-

Jan 1, 1968

By B. F. Tillson

ALTHOUGH most accidents occur through the A carelessness or misfortune of the workmen; that is no reason why we should not take all physical precautions practicable. The best way to approach the problem of mine safety is to acquire a personal feeling of responsibility for the accident and then plan how it might have been prevented had we known that it was to occur. A statistical analysis of the physical conditions contributory to accidents will give an indication of some of the methods or mechanisms that should be revised or safeguarded. The handling of rock or ore is a common source of minor injuries. Freedom from accident when mucking largely depends on the skill and care of the workman; this also is true, to a certain degree, to loading cars from chutes, but much can be done in the layout of chutes and their equipment to provide equal safety with less skill. Permanent stagings, or rigid units that may be easily assembled, should be provided so that the men handling the chute boards or gates and barring the jammed chunks will have a convenient safe footing for their operations. A stance to the side of the chute mouth is to one in front, because a man will not be liable to be struck by flying lumps or his bar, should it he caught in the mass, yet in many mines the workmen face the chute when loading a car. Fig. 1 shows the operation of a plank chute having special latches which support the chute boards in such manner that they may be conveniently dropped into place to stop the flow of ore.

Jan 1, 1926

By Sidney H. Haughton

WHEN the white pioneers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries advanced from the coastal settlements of southern Africa into the interior of the subcontinent, they found it inhabited, more or less sparsely, by brown or black peoples mainly of pastoral habits but equipped with a fighting spirit and certain fighting weapons. Some of the tribes were smiths, others were miners and metallurgists; all used fuel, either industrially or domestically. Some of that fuel was wood, some cattle dung, and in some places the natives mined outcrop coal. Coal was first discovered by Europeans in Natal about 1840. After proper deliberation and after allowing due time for a consideration of all the implications, the Natal Government decided in 1881 (40 years after) to import an English expert to investigate and report on the discovery. Things then moved rapidly, and in what to a geologist is the remarkably short space of eight years, Natal collieries were producing at the rate of nearly 30,000 long tons per annum or 100 long tons per working day!

Jan 1, 1945

By John A. Emery

The Pea Ridge iron ore deposit near Sullivan, Missouri, is a dike-like mass of magnetite enclosed in Precambrian porphyries. The ore body tops at the Precambrian surface at a depth of 1300 feet below the present surface and extends to an unknown depth. It dips nearly vertically, intersecting the dip and strike of the enclosing porphyries at an extremely sharp angle. Faulting, both pre- and post-ore, appears to be of minor consequence, and present knowledge indicates that no preferred structural conditions existed prior to emplacement. The ore body is composed of magnetite with specular hematite, quartz, apatite, and pyrite occurring as accessory primary minerals. Specular hematite in appreciable quantities occurs on parts of the cap and the footwall of the ore body. Fresh porphyry breccia is enclosed in the magnetite along the hanging wall and in the western portion of the ore body. Hanging-wall quartz-amphibole and footwall quartz-hematite occur as replacements of certain porphyries. Further alteration has caused sericitization of parts of these zones. The ore deposit is interpreted as having been formed essentially by a single injection of a magmatic differentiate with hydrothermal end phases forming the quartz-amphibole and quartz-hematite portions of the deposit.

Jan 1, 1968

By AIME AIME

Acid Open-Hearth Manipulation.. By ANDREW MCWILLIAM and WILLIAM H. HATFIELD, ii, 279. Discussion by J. J. MORGAN, iii, 647; E. H. SANITER, iii, 648; MCWILLIAM and HATFIELD, 111, 648. ADDICKS, LAWRENCE. The Effect of Impurities on the Electrical Conductivity of Copper, iii, 559. Address of Welcome to the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. By RICHARD RATHBUN, .iv, 923. ALLDERDICE, TAYLOR. Discussion of MR. ROE'S paper, The Mann¬ facture and Characteristics of Wrought Iron, v, 1091. American Mining Engineer. Discussion by ARTHUR JARMAN, iii, 641. An Automatic Stock-Line Recorder for Iron Blast-Furnaces. By J. E. JOHNSON, JR., iii, 509. Anthracite-Washeries. By GEORGE W. HARRIS, vi, 1263.

Jan 1, 1907

By James A. Brierley, Corale L. Brierley

Microorganisms have been considered as agents which may be of importance in catalyzing hydrometallurgical processes for the extraction of metals from low-grade ore minerals. Various microorganisms and their role in bacterial leaching are described. Bacterial leaching as applied to copper, uranium, zinc, lead, and coal is discussed.

Jan 1, 1981

Jan 1, 1945

By John Goodell

CIVIL engineers seem to number in their ranks more advocates of licensing than are found among the practitioners of other branches of the pro-fession. Licensing was not originated by civil engineers but it was forced upon them in two ways. In the first place, the civil engineering profession has hangers-on like every other profession. The first legislative result of their imperfect accomplishments with which I am familiar occurred in the far West. It was found that early irrigation works were so badly planned in some cases that not only were water rights made very uncertain but considerable sums were invested in structures and ditches which proved inadequate and occasionally complete failures. Water was too valuable to be wasted in that way and money too hard to obtain. In those sections, therefore, laws were passed many years ago which made it obligatory for the design of irrigation works and other structures utilizing water to be made by engineers who had satisfied a board of examiners that they possessed the technical qualifications to plan such works properly. The basic thought on which such laws rest is the same as that on which laws governing the licensing of boiler operators rest, namely, the safety and welfare of the public. While boiler explosions still occur and irrigation works are built which are not wholly satis-factory, these laws have helped the, public, it is gener-ally agreed.

Jan 4, 1922

By W. F. Rogers, J. A. Stewart, P. J. Kalish, E. O. Bennett

Detailed descriptions are given of materials, apparatus and the experimental procedure used to study the effect of bacteria on sandstone permeability. The factors affecting permeability during injection of bacterial suspensions which have been investigated are: (I) concentration of bacteria; (2) core permeability and median pore size; (3) species of bacteria, mode of aggregation and relative size; (4) injection rate or pressure differential; (5) mean pressure; and (6) depth of penetration of bacteria. The investigation demonstrated that bacteria cannot reduce core pertneability to zero and that their effect on permeability is subject to definite limitations. Remedial or permeability restoration studies also were made. Acidization in combination with reverse flow war found to be an effective method for restoring permeability In cores partially plugged with bacteria. The relationship between the bacterial quantities in the laboratory tests and those found in field operations is discussed. The linear laboratory flow data have been translated into terms of field radial systems; these data indicate the most practical methods of maintaining injection rates in the presence of bacteria are to increase injection pressures or hydraulically fracture the formation. INTRODUCTION It has long been known that various bacteria flourish in the above-ground components of oil field water-injection systems. The presence of these bacteria has led to the suspicion that they might enter into the causes for reduction of injection well permeability, but only recently has an attempt been made to describe the effects quantitatively.1 Biocides are used in many cases without a firm knowledge as to whether the bacteria are killed, or if they are, whether the dead cells affect formation permeability. This project was undertaken as part of a study to determine the effect of bacteria, residual oil and precipitated solids such as iron sulfide or calcium carbonate on the permeability of sandstones and to learn whether any of these materials adversely affect brine injectivity in secondary recovery or disposal operations. This report deals with that portion relating to the effect of bacteria. MATERIALS CORES Three different permeability ranges of Berea sandstone cores were used in the study. The range of initial, absolute brine permeabilities kj were: high — 278 to 400 md: medium—130 to 162 md; and low—17.7 to 48.3 md. The permeability data for the cores used in the tests are included in Table 1. All cores were cut to a nominal 1 in. diameter. Following air permeability determinations, they were molded with an epoxy resin in 1.5 in. ID aluminum sleeves. The sleeves had drilled and tapped holes for intermediate pressure connections along the length of the cores. After molding, the high- and medium-permeability cores were trimmed to 4 in. in length and the low-permeability cores to 2 in. These lengths resulted in pore volumes of approximately 10.9, 10.4 and 4.4 ml, respectively, for the high-, medium- and low-permeability cores. Pressure-transmitting channels were drilled through the plastic into the core proper, using the sleeve holes as drill guides. Width and depth of channel penetration into the core proper were approximately 0.03 in. and 0.05 in., respectively. Three pressure taps were used with all cores; for the high- and medium-permeability cores the taps were spaced 1 in. apart; for the low-permeability cores the taps were spaced 0.4, 0.8 and 1.2 in. from the inlet end. Pore size distributions were calculated from restored-state capillary pressure curves for representative cores in each of the three permeability ranges. In each case the pore size range with the greatest percentage of the pore space included the very small pores up to 0.5 micron in radius. The median pore radii were in the 5.5 to 6 micron range for the high-permeability cores; in the 4.5 to 5 micron range for the medium-permeability cores; and in the 3.5 to 4 micron range for the low-permeability cores.

Jan 1, 1965

By K. W. Grubaugh, L. W. Saperstein

The recently enacted federal surface mine law (P. L. 95-87) increases further the complexity of securing a reclamation permit This law intensifies the need to present the required reclamation plan in a thorough and comprehensive manner. One plan format, that used in construction performance contracts, offers promise of filling this need. Reasons for using the format of expressed, bilateral, negotiated contracts common to the construction industry, and the salient aspects of an application which uses this format are reviewed. Advantages of this procedure are seen to be improved mine planning, awareness of the total design job, potential for improved speed of permit acceptance, and improved cost control.

Jan 1, 1981

By J. J. Lillie

Sublevel stoping was first developed in the Michigan iron mines many years ago. Since that time this method, and modifications with long hole drilling, have been used in a number of non-ferrous mines and have been described in various papers and articles. With a few exceptions, the operations where sublevel methods have been applied are producers of large daily tonnages from ore bodies of considerable size. In selecting mining methods for small properties or relatively small detached ore bodies, sublevel methods often have been overlooked. The method has been used success- fully in relatively small operations at Copper Canyon, Nevada, and, more recently, in mining small ore bodies at Darwin, Calif. As a result of this experience, we believe that a review of the general procedure, the advantages noted, and the results obtained will be of interest to many operators of relatively small mines.

Jan 1, 1949

By James H. Courtright, Kenyon Richard

TOQUEPALA is a porphyry copper deposit in which mineralization is localized by a large breccia pipe formed in dose genetic relation to intrusive rocks. The deposit is in southern Peru, 55 airline miles north of the small city of Tacna and the same distance inland from the port of 110. Quellaveco and Cuajone, geologically similar deposits, lie 12 and 19 miles north of Toquepala. Chuquicamata is 400 miles to the south. The deposit is high on the southwestern slope about 20 miles from the crest of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes Chain. It lies in a mountainous desert where the steep southwesterly slope of the Andes is dissected by a succession of rapidly downcutting, deep canyons. Local topography is moderately rugged with a dendritic drainage pattern and an elevation of 8000 to 14,000 ft. Volcanic peaks along the crest of the Cordillera rise over 19,000 ft.

Jan 2, 1958