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By M. F. Goudge, R. V. Tomkins

Sodium sulfate is an important chemical raw material that is being used in ever increasing quantities in modem industry. It comes on the market mainly in three forms: (1) Salt cake (Na2SO4), a relatively crude form of the anhydrous salt containing up to 3 pct impurities, and comprising about three-quarters of the North American production; (2) anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), a refined form containing less than 0.3 pct impurities; (3) Glauber's salt, the decahydrate (Na2SO4.10H2O) containing 55.9 pct water of crystallization. Competing with salt cake from natural sources is byproduct salt cake from a number of industrial operations. For instance there is Mannheim cake resulting from the manufacture of hydrochloric acid by the reaction of salt (NaCl) and sulfuric acid in Mannheim furnaces; rayon cake, a high-quality product, resulting from the process of making rayon by the viscose process; chrome cake from the processing of sodium chromate to dichromate; phenol cake from the manufacture of phenol; also byproduct sodium sulfate resulting from the conversion of lithium sulfate to lithium carbonate; from the processing of sodium tetraborate to boric acid; from converting sodium formate to formic acid; and in the manufacture of cellophane. Sodium sulfate is also obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of isosebasic acid. In addition strong competition has resulted from imports of byproduct salt cake from the chemical industries of a number of highly industrialized European countries. However in recent years due to technological changes the output of byproduct salt cake is rapidly diminishing and the natural deposits are becoming the most important source of sodium sulfate used in North America. For instance, the production of hydrochloric acid in Mannheim plants has become obsolete and thus the greatest single source of byproduct salt cake will disappear. Also viscose rayon is meeting strong competition from nylon and other synthetic fibers and production of byproduct salt cake from this source may do little more than remain at the present level. These factors together with increasing demand for sodium sulfate point to increased production from natural sources. In 1958, 36 pct of the total United States production was derived from natural sources and in addition 97,000 short tons was imported so that over 40 pct of the total consumption was supplied by natural sources whereas in 1953 the proportion was only 24 pct. The rapid growth in production is shown in Table 1. Principal Sodium Sulfate Minerals There are many minerals in which sodium sulfate is a constituent but those of commercial importance at the present time, and consisting wholly of sodium sulfate in either the hydrous or anhydrous states, are mirabilite and thenardite. Minerals of potential importance but consisting in part of compounds other than sodium sulfate are glauberite in which sodium sulfate is combined with calcium sulfate, and blödite in which sodium sulfate is combined with magnesium sulfate. Mirabilite (Na2SO4.10H2O) the decahydrate, consists of 24.8 pct SO3, 19.3 pct Na2O, and 55.9 pct H20. It is a colorless to opaque, soft, water-soluble mineral with a slightly bitter taste. It has a hardness of less than 2 and a specific gravity of 1.48. It forms long needle-

Jan 1, 1960

SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise seven classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3. Senior Members; 4. Associates; 5. Junior Members; 6. Rocky Mountain Members; 7. Junior Foreign Affiliates. All shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that no member of any class whose residence shall be outside of the United States of America, except those residing in Mexico and Canada, shall be entitled to vote. SEC. 2. Members: A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the class of Member must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years' employ¬ment in the practice of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy, or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. This shall not apply to Rocky Mountain members. SEC. 3. Honorary Members: Each candidate for Honorary Membership must be recommended by at least ten Members and must be elected by ballot at a meeting of the Board of Directors by the unanimous vote of the Directors present; provided, how¬ever, that the number of Honorary Members shall at no time exceed twenty. Such election shall automatically act as a transfer of such member from any other class of membership to which he may belong. SEC. 4. -Senior Members: The Directors may in their discretion place on the Honor Roll of Senior Members and transfer from any other class of membership other than Honorary Membership the name of any Member or Associate who has reached the age of seventy years and who has paid dues for thirty years, and for good reasons in special cases may vary the age or number of years. SEC. 5. Junior Members: A person to be eligible for election to the class of Junior Member must be qualified through education or experience to hold a subordinate position in engineering, mining, metallurgical, geological or chemical work. He shall be not more than 33 years of age at the time of election. SEC. 6. Associates: A person eligible for election or transfer into the class of Associate shall be one, who, in the opinion of the Committee on Admissions and the Board of Directors, is suitable for such election or transfer by reason of his interest in or connection with mining, geology, metallurgy, or chemistry. SEC. 7. Rocky Mountain Members: Membership in a special class of life member¬ships without annual or other dues and without right to receive the printed literature distributed to other members or the right and privilege of wearing the official badge of technical members, is given to all members of the Rocky Mountain Club at the time of consolidation. These special Rocky Mountain memberships shall be claimable by any member of the Rocky Mountain Club, not already a member of the Institute, availing himself of the privilege within ninety days after mailing of notice to him, by the Secretary of the Institute. SEC. 8. Junior Foreign Afliate: Upon appropriate action by the Board of Direc¬tors and with its approval, members in good standing of any technical society having its headquarters outside of the United States of America, Canada, or Mexico,

Jan 1, 1937

By A. L., Bailey

All who are even generally aware of the tremendous rate of increase in coal washing operations must realize the growing importance of the float-and-sink test. I believe it is conservative to estimate that, in the past decade, the dollar volume of float-and-sink testing has increased tenfold. It is a simple matter of economy, then, to examine the factors that determine the cost of adequate float-and-sink testing. When the Coal Preparation Section of the Bureau of Mines entered upon a greatly expanded program of such work in connection with the synthetic liquid fuels investigations, it seemed advisable to examine these factors experimentally. The principal consideration that differentiates float-and-sink test sampling from general purpose sampling, is that the original particle size must be preserved. Therefore, the total cost of the test will be directly affected by any standard that might be proposed to limit sample bulk reduction at any given particle size. For this reason, the relationship of sample size to variability of results was the first factor to be studied experimentally.

Jan 1, 1949

DEFENSE Materials Procurement Agency has been moving rapidly to encourage copper industry expansion programs. Although copper production is at a high level, a shortage exists on a world-wide basis as well as on the domestic scene. Projected expansion programs will not ease this current demand for most of them are 2 to 5 years off. Refining facilities are adequate but there is a shortage of ore and scrap, and it is for this reason that the expansion programs are directed at developing more sources of supply. The domestic expansion programmed thus far and understood to have been arranged with price escalation should the domestic price go to 271/20, were summarized by American Metal Markets as follows (dates of announcement are given in parenthesis: .1-Copper Cities Mining Co.'s, $15,000,000 expansion near Miami, Ariz., to be operating about 1954. DMPA will buy 22,500 tons of copper a year up to a given amount on an agreed price of 23¢ per pound, with some exceptions and depending upon salability at a higher price to other purchasers in the U. S. (September 25th). 2-An RFC loan of $60,000 to North Butte Mining Co. to be paid off on the basis of deliveries at a purchase price of 241/20 per pound (September 25th). 3-A $25,000,000 expansion program by Phelps Dodge to provide 38,000 tons per year by late 1954. DMPA would purchase it at a price of 22¢ per pound up to 112,500 tons providing other purchasers in the U. S. will not pay a higher price (September 26th). 4-Anaconda Copper Mining Co. $40,000,000 expansion in Nevada to provide more than 30,000 (might be increased to 45,000) tons per year. DMPA would purchase the copper at 250 per pound for a limited period of time if it is not salable to industrial users at above this price. Production would start around 1953 (November 14th).

Jan 1, 1952

By J. D. Lubahn

The influence of precipitation from solid solution on the subsequent deformation resistance of alloys is well known. However, the influence of precipitation or aging that occurs simultaneously with deformation may be entirely different and of considerable importance. It is thought1 that the presence or absence of a yield point jog in impure iron at room temperature and the presence or absence of discontinuous flow at higher temperatures may be directly related to aging phenomena, particularly since the yield point jog is absent when the carbon and nitrogen are sufficiently removed.2 As a preliminary attack on the problem of simultaneous aging and deformation, three kinds of tests—constant strain rate tensile tests, constant load creep tests, and variable strain rate tensile tests—were carried out on an age hardenahle aluminum alloy. Constant Strain Rate Tensile Tests Stress-strain curves at a strain rale of about 0.001 min-1 were obtained for specimens of 61S that had been quenched into liquid nitrogen after a one-hour solution treatment at 521°C, then aged at room temperature 10 min., 20 min., 4 hr, and 26.5 hr before testing. Strain-time curves were obtained on the same chart with the stress-strain curve by means of an auxiliary pen, driven parallel to the axis of the chart drum at constant speed by a synchronous motor and gear chain. The angle of rotation of the chart drum was proportional to strain. The strain rates reported are the measured slopes of the strain time curves. Constant strain rate was approximated (within a factor of 2) by manual adjustment of the oil inlet valve of the hydraulic testing machine in such a way that the course of the recorder pen was parallel to pre-drawn strain-time lines of the desired slope. The specimens were machined from 9/16 in. rod. The cylindrical portion was 0.357 in. in diam by 13/4 in. long and

Jan 1, 1950

By John Stewart

The market at present supplied by shipments from the phosphate districts of Quebec, Ontario, and New York State requires high-grade ore, carrying from 75 per cent. to 90 per cent. of phosphate of lime. In sorting out such material by hand, much valuable phosphate is necessarily left in the "culls" or refuse, besides which, much phosphate-rock of low-grade is not now mined at all, because it cannot be made available by the crude method of cobbing and hand-sorting. The utilization of such material, which would, of course, greatly benefit this industry, requires either a mechanical separation or a chemical process which would concentrate the phosphate in a form suitable for agriculture. Considering the rich phosphate now shipped as the first class, we may arrange the lower grades in three classes, as follows: Second Class.—Cull-ore from the first class, and the mass of deposits having, as gangue, pyroxene or hornblende. The following table gives the hardness and specific gravity of the minerals concerned: Hardness Spec. gravity. Apatite,....... . 5 3.1 to 3.25 Crystalline limestone (pink calcite),. 3 to 4 2.5 to 2.9 Pyroxene,..5 to 6 3.23 to 3.5 Hornblende,.5 to 6 2.9 to 3.4 Feldspar (orthoclase),. .. . 6 to 6.5 2.5 to 2.6 It is evident that when pyroxene and hornblende are present in large proportions, this ore cannot be successfully concentrated by crushing and jigging. It may be reduced to fine powder by successive treatment in a rock-breaker and a Sturtevant or Frisbee-Lucop mill, or other suitable apparatus, and in this condition it could be largely used by applying it freely upon exhausted clay soils, such as occur in Quebec and Ontario. The occupants of these once fertile river-lands are, however, hard to move in the direction of such improvements. When water-power is at hand, the cost of crushing

Jan 1, 1893

By Porter W. Shimer

(New York Meeting, February, 1912.) IT does not seem to be generally known that some American pig-irons contain notable amounts of vanadium, and while the present investigation is far from covering the whole range of irons, it is hoped that, at least, it may serve to call attention to the importance of looking for this element. The majority of the pig-irons investigated were made in the Lehigh Valley and neighboring furnaces, using more or less New Jersey magnetite in their mixtures. Many of these ores, and probably all of them, contain a little vanadium as well as titanium; the ore from one of the largest of these mines contains 0.05 per cent. of vanadium and 0.60 per cent. of titanium. Dr. Thomas M. Drown was the first to detect the presence. of vanadium in the incrustations 1 occurring on certain pig-irons, and he also found this element in a number of magnetites, but the methods for its accurate determination had not, at that time, been well worked out. In a general way, it may be said that the Lehigh Valley pig-irons contain from 0.02 to 0.05 per cent. of vanadium and from 0.10 to 0.20 per cent. of titanium. These elements follow the silicon; that is, the furnace-conditions which produce a high-silicon, low-sulphur iron will cause the maximum reduction of vanadium and titanium, and the lower grades of iron, with low silicon and high sulphur, have a lower content of these elements. The following analyses of irons made from the same mixture, but under varying furnace-conditions, show this very well Vanadium. Silicon. Sulphur. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. NO. 1 X, . . . 0.042 3.46 0.022 No. 2 plain, . . 0.038 2.26 0.041 Mottled, . . . 0.0'29 0.52 0.106 1 Robertson and Firmstone, Note Concerning Certain Incrustations on Pig Iron,Trans., xii., 641 (1883-84).

Aug 1, 1912

By B. R. Berger

The Getchell area in the northern Osgood Range, Humboldt County, Nevada, was first prospected in the late 1800s for silver, copper, and gold; the first recorded mention of mining activity concerned a silver discovery. The September 17, 1874 edition of the Winnemucca Silver State notes that the Crystal Mining District was newly organized in the Fremont Range (as the Osgood Range was then called) to include discoveries of silver, lead, and antimony made on the Louisa claim. The name Crystal was derived from the plentiful quartz crystals found in-cavities near the prospects. This same area, occurring on the northwestern margin of the Osgood granodiorite stock, was later mined as the Richmond tungsten property, and crystals may still be found there in cavities in a massive garnet tactite. By 1878, how-ever, the name Crystal had been abandoned in favor of Potosi. The next flurry of activity in the Osgood Range was reported in 1899 when a copper strike on Granite Creek in the southern portion of the range received attention. The copper occukences were in a granite contact zone on the southeastern edge of the Osgood stock and, in 1916, the first tungsten in the district was discovered in the same deposit. During the last part of the nineteenth century, cattle and sheep were brought into the Kelly Creek Valley east of the Osgood Mountains by various ranchers. Alphonso and Adrian Bernard were among these ranchers, and in the first decade of the twentieth century, one of them recognized the altered rock where the Getchell Center it is now located. A 3-m (10-ft) deep prospect pit was dug on the outcrop, but the highest assay ran about $11/t ($10 per st). No further work was done on the gold-bearing rock. In 1934, Emmet Chase of Battle Mountain and Ed Knight of Golconda prospected in the area of the Bernard prospect pit and located several lode claims. At this time, Noble H. Getchell, a state senator, was looking for new mining opportunities to develop. He held interests in the Gold Circle Consolidated at Midas, which was becoming a losing venture. Chase and Knight brought their discovery to his attention, and he grubstaked them to prospect further in the area. In need of financial backing, Getchell solicited the help of George Wingfield, Sr., who held a minor interest in the Gold Circle. Wingfield was a successful banker and mine operator during the heyday of Tonopah and Goldfield, and he had become good friends with Henry C. Frick and Bernard Baruch. Wingfield let Baruch in on several very successful mining ventures in Goldfield, and Baruch returned the favor by underwriting the financing of the Getchell mine. Eleanor Roosevelt and Jack Dempsey were early stockholders in the Getchell operation. George Wingfield brought his brother-in-law, Roy A. Hardy, a consulting engineer who had constructed the American Flat mill near Virginia City, to look at the property. Upon inspecting the Chase-Knight claims, Hardy declared the whole area to be mineralized. A crosscut was driven to check the extent of the ore, and the results were better than anticipated. The locators were reportedly given $50,000 for the claims. The Getchell Mine, Inc., was organized on November 5, 1936. A small railroad that ran from Battle Mountain to Austin was purchased, and the ties and rails were moved to Getchell to be used in underground exploration. Enough reserves were found in the Center and South pit areas to construct a 40 t/d (44 stpd) mill. The financial and engineering help for the mill was provided by the Newmont Mining Co. for a 17 1/2% interest in the corporation. Newmont set about trying to solve the metallurgical problems with the sulfide ore, and also directed the early development work. Newmont wanted to grind the sulfide ore underground and oxidize it in the atmosphere by spreading salt on it. Detrital Flat in Arizona was purchased to provide salt for

Jan 1, 1985

By AIME AIME

THE Chairman of the Iron and Steel Division for 1945 is one of the most versatile and best-known men in this industry, with wide experience in research and operations and in handling both the men and the materials that are used in enormous quantities. Erle G. (Doe) Hill was born in Santa Ana, (alit, April 21, 1890 and graduated (Bachelor of Science) in mining and metallurgy from the University of California in 1913. For the next five years lie held a variety of jobs as miner, foreman, and null superintendent in gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver mines in the West and in Mexico. As Doe was an individual endowed with an exceptional amount of horse sense, he left the West in 1918, to become instructor of mining engineering and ore dressing at Carnegie Institute of Technology, and while in that post did considerable consulting work as a geologist and mining engineer. In 1920, still possessing the same common sense. he got out of mining engineering and geology and became associate professor of metallurgy at the University of Pittsburgh, a position he retained for nearly ten years.

Jan 1, 1945

By William E. Greenawalt

Ever since electrolytic copper refining gave promise of success, about a half century ago, efforts have been made to apply the idea to the extraction of copper from its ores. The methods of attack have, usually, been to leach with a dilute acid and then to deposit electrolytically the copper from the resulting solution with the simultaneous regeneration of the solvent used in the process. Many efforts have been made, and many patents have been taken out, both in the United States and abroad, to give this idea practical application, but only within the past few years have the difficulties been surmounted. Leaching and electrolysis, as applied to copper ores, are among the most promising fields in modern metallurgy. New conditions are arising, which will bring the wet methods into prominence; while high freight rates and increasing cost of fuel will tend to limit smelting to highly favored localities. The possibilities offered by the installation of hydroelectric plants and the greatly enlarged range of power transmission will greatly widen the field of electrolytic methods. Electrolytic methods are ideally adapted to hydroelectric development, for the load is constant throughout the full twenty-four hours, and the cost of both installation and operation of hydroelectric plants is not appreciably greater when operating for twenty-four hours than when operating for eight or ten hours; whereas, in fuel-power generation, as also in smelting, the cost is more or less in proportion to the fuel and power used. Nevertheless, fuel-power generation presents advantages in electrolytic methods, as the power plant may be located in a favorable place while the leaching and electrolytic plants may be located at the mine. The ultimate possibilities of the wet methods have yet to be determined. The possibilities of smelting have been thoroughly worked out; there is no unsolved major problem in copper smelting, and it has practically reached the limit of its possibilities. It seems hardly probable that any future improvement, either of method or apparatus, will greatly

Jan 1, 1924

By Arthur Wade

During the year 1938, there was some drilling in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, as follows: Queens1and.—At Hutton Creek, lat. (approx.) 25° 45' S.; long (approx.) 149°, drilling was done by Drillers limited (subsidiary Oil Search) to a depth of 4688 ft., to the Lower Permian(?). There were small gas showings. The hole mas abandoned. At Mt. Bassett, lat (approx.) 26" 20' S.; long. (approx.) 149", Roma Blocks Oil Co. No Liability drilled to a depth of 4033 ft. The hole bottomed in granite. There were small showings of' oil and gas above bedrock in what may be Permian but is not yet determined. The company intends to run a formation tester. New South Wales.—At Kulnura, lat. (approx.) 33" S., long (approx.) 151°, the Kamilaroi Oil Company Ltd. (subsidiary of Oil Search Ltd.) drilled to a depth of 6293 ft. The Permian, probably Upper Marine Series, was reached. Drilling is to continue. Victoria.—At Romawi, lat. (approx) 37" 50' S., long. (approx.) 147" 45', a dry hole 3246 ft. deep bottomed in the Jurassic and was abandoned. It was drilled by the Governments of the Commonwealth and the State of Victoria. At Lakes Entrance, 1st. (approx.) 37" 50' S.; long. (approx) 748", a small showing of' oil (a few pints a day) was obtained from a well drilled 1275 It., to the Upper Oligocene-Glaucnnitc series, by the Austral Oil Drilling Syndicate, No Liability. Future Drilling Preparations is are being made by companies fur further test drilling in 1939, and the Governments of the Common wealth and the State of Victoria are continuing test holes for information only in the Gippsland district of Victoria. In Papua and New Guinea, no test drilling was done in 1938, but several companies are carrying on geological investigation and it is expected that, some test holes will be drilled during 1939.

Jan 1, 1939

By Arthur Wade

During the year 1938, there was some drilling in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, as follows: Queens1and.—At Hutton Creek, lat. (approx.) 25° 45' S.; long (approx.) 149°, drilling was done by Drillers limited (subsidiary Oil Search) to a depth of 4688 ft., to the Lower Permian(?). There were small gas showings. The hole mas abandoned. At Mt. Bassett, lat (approx.) 26" 20' S.; long. (approx.) 149", Roma Blocks Oil Co. No Liability drilled to a depth of 4033 ft. The hole bottomed in granite. There were small showings of' oil and gas above bedrock in what may be Permian but is not yet determined. The company intends to run a formation tester. New South Wales.—At Kulnura, lat. (approx.) 33" S., long (approx.) 151°, the Kamilaroi Oil Company Ltd. (subsidiary of Oil Search Ltd.) drilled to a depth of 6293 ft. The Permian, probably Upper Marine Series, was reached. Drilling is to continue. Victoria.—At Romawi, lat. (approx) 37" 50' S., long. (approx.) 147" 45', a dry hole 3246 ft. deep bottomed in the Jurassic and was abandoned. It was drilled by the Governments of the Commonwealth and the State of Victoria. At Lakes Entrance, 1st. (approx.) 37" 50' S.; long. (approx) 748", a small showing of' oil (a few pints a day) was obtained from a well drilled 1275 It., to the Upper Oligocene-Glaucnnitc series, by the Austral Oil Drilling Syndicate, No Liability. Future Drilling Preparations is are being made by companies fur further test drilling in 1939, and the Governments of the Common wealth and the State of Victoria are continuing test holes for information only in the Gippsland district of Victoria. In Papua and New Guinea, no test drilling was done in 1938, but several companies are carrying on geological investigation and it is expected that, some test holes will be drilled during 1939.

Jan 1, 1939

By W. M. Small

From the one producing well in Austria, 7000 bbl. of heavy oil was produced and sold in 1933. This well, owned by the Raky-Danubia, was completed late in 1932 in the formation called Flysch (Upper Cretaceous or lower Eocene) near Zistersdorf north of Vienna. Two wildcats drilling in the vicinity have not yet reached the producing beds. Near Vienna, the European Gas and Electric Co. drilled five shallow wells for gas, three of which were failures. One gas well was completed for 8 million cu. ft. capacity at 260 meters depth and with a pressure of 570 lb. Another is being tested following blowouts. One gas well and one dry hole were completed in the pool in 1932. In Upper Austria, the same company abandoned one wildcat at 679 m. and is drilling at 280 m. on a second. No gas was sold during the year, but a line is being completed to supply fuel to boilers of the Vienna Electric Works. Hungary No deep drilling was done in 1933. Oil and gas concession was granted by Parliament to the European Gas and Electric Co. on Trans-danubia. Active geological and geophysical investigation is in progress. Czechoslovakia In the Gbely and Hodonin shallow fields, some 26 wells were drilled of which three were reported as failures. The total production of the fields was 111,736 bbl. of oil and 40 million cu. ft. of gas used as fuel in the field. At Vacenovice, where there were already two small gas wells, a third producer was completed at 420 m. This pool markets a small amount of gas, which is compressed and used to light railway carriages. Wildcat wells were reported drilling at about 300 m. depth at both Jasina and Telnice. One 700-ni. wildcat near the Hodonin field was abandoned. Another failure was reported completed and abandoned at 820 m. near Holic.

Jan 1, 1934

By Eckley B. Coxe

I wish to call the attention of the Institute to a peculiar variety of anthracite which occurs in the Buck Mountain vein at our collieries at Drifton, and in the same and other veins in different localities in the anthracite coal-fields. It is known among the workmen as iron-gray or cast-iron. It has a dull, greasy appearance, as if a piece of ordinary anthracite had been rubbed with a dirty and greasy rag and allowed to dry. It was formerly considered a very impure coal containing a high percentage of ash, and was picked out of the coal and thrown away. But the following analysis of it and of its ash, made by Mr. J. Blodget Britton, of Philadelphia, shows that such is not the case, the percentage of ash not being much higher than that of the ordinary anthracites as they are prepared for market. ANALYSIS OF COAL. Water,.........4.36 Fixed carbon, by difference,.. 84.90 Volatile combustible matter,. . 3 48 Ash,..........7.26 100.00 The carbon proved to some extent to be of the nature of graphite, and slowly combustible. ANALYSIS OF ASH. Silica,.........25.66 Sulphur,........ .17 Alumina,........27.03 Phosphoric acid,.......21 Ferric oxide,.......42.83 Alkali, undetermined matter and Lime,.........1.56 loss,.........60 Magnesia,........1.83 Manganous oxide,......11 100.00 We recently collected a quantity of the substance and made a fire with it, in an ordinary stove, which was kept up several days. We found that it burned with intense heat, and apparently as freely as our other coal does. Mr. Britton is probably right in his view, that the difference in appearance is not due to impurities in the coal, but to the fact that the carbon is in a more or less graphitic form, as many of the standard coals are no purer. I bring this before the Institute as I know that a large quantity of this valuable fuel is thrown away every year, on account of its supposed impurities.

Jan 1, 1879

By J. C. Bradley

The relation of annealing temperature to conductivity of copper wire has been determined. Conductivity hard was 98.26 per cent. After a 10-min. heat,ing at 200" C. it was 98.69. By annealing 10 min. at 300" C. a large increase, to 100.93, occurred. Maximum conductivity, 101.15, was attained after a 500" C. anneal; thereafter it decreased to 100.53 after a 950" C. anneal. If copper is gassed the decrease is much more than this. Material and Method The work was done on high grade electrolytic copper, 99.942 per cent, copper plus silver, silver 0.0008 per cent. It was hot-rolled to 1/4 in., then cold drawn to 0.080 in. The wire was cut into 25 5-ft. lengths and numbered 1 to 25 as cut. Four samples were tested hard. The others were wound into 5-in. diameter coils. For the 100" C. heating a coil was put into water, the water brought to . boiling, and the wire kept at this temperature for 10 min. For the higher temperatures the coils were placed in envelopes of sheet copper, a little water added, and the envelopes sealed by folding over the edges twice, and hammering them together. This kept the air out very well. The envelope and wire were brought to the desired temperature; this was maintained for 10 min., then the whole was water-quenched. Results Data from the tests are shown in the table and plot (see Fig. 1); conductivity is referred to the International Annealed Copper Standard at 20" C. Conductivity hard is considerably less than conductivity soft.1 The increase is sharp when the wire anneals. The maximum, 101.15 per cent, in the particular material used, comes at 500º C.; thereafter the conductivity falls to 100.53 per cent. after 950" C. annealing, a drop of 0.62 per cent.

Jan 1, 1927

By A. Faber du Faur

At the request of some of the members to whom I have shown a collection of specimens of sulphur from southern Utah, I herewith present some notes relating to the mines and the method of extracting the sulphur from the ore. In preparing these notes I have borrowed from a paper by Prof. G. vom Rath, published in the Neue Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, vol. i., 1884, dated Salt Lake City, December, 1883. The Cove Creek sulphur-bed, now worked by the Dickert & Myers Sulphur Co., is in Beaver county, near the line of Millard county. It was first discovered by Mr. Ferdinand Dickert in 1869 ; other beds in the same neighborhood mere found by him from 1872 to 1875, making altogether 22 mining claims. The want of railroad communication prevented the early development of these claims; but in 1883 Mr. F. Dickert put up a plant for extracting sulphur from the ore, which proved a perfect success; and in 1885 the property was transferred to a stock company organized under the laws of Utah. The railroad station nearest to the Cove Creek mines is Black Rock, on the Utah Central Railroad, 204 miles south from Salt Lake City, and about 26 miles west of the mines. The road from Black Rock to the mines passes through desert and lava-bed, to the road leading from Kanosh to Beaver, which latter road it joins near Cove Creek fort, a square stone enclosure, erected by the Mormons for protection against the Indians. Cove Creek fort is situated near the eastern limit of a plain bounded on the west at a distance of about 12 miles by the Mineral range, and on the east by the Sulphur mountains, forming part of the Tushar mountains. To the northwest the plain runs into the Sandy desert. About 3 miles from the fort rises a solitary hill about 1000 feet above the

Jan 1, 1888

By Victor De Ysassi

THE iron mines of Spain are located on the mountain ridge forming the boundary between the, Teruel and Guadalajara provinces, called Sierra Menera. They form a property of 25 mines extending over an area of 1,677 hectares (4,140 acres) situated at a height varying from 1,200 m. (3,940 ft.) to 1,500 m. (4,920 ft.) above sea level. The deposit follows the direction north to south; huge masses of ore are being found both on the slopes and at the summit of the Sierra. The ore occurs among quartzites and magnesite limestone, in some places overlaid by quartzite 15 in. (50 ft.) thick; in some others (and this is more general) the ore is overlaid by earth and boulders of quartzite origin,; this layer is about 8 m. (26 ft.) thick. The ore beds occupy the geological horizon of the Superior Trias or Muschelkask, which are here in direct contact with the Silurian quartzites. The lime-stones have been more or less transformed. There is ample evidence to show that these mines were worked in very ancient times-objects and tools employed in mining by the ancient Romans and Arabs are to be found plentifully in old workings which extend down into the deposits. It has been estimated that more than 10,000,000 tons of ore were mined in the old days in this district and carried to the primitive forges in the vicinity where iron of much renown in Spain was extracted. Remains of more than 20 of these forges are found in the neighborhood of Sierra Menera and are usually situated near waterfalls and forests. Much investigation has been carried on for the purpose of determining the quantity of ore to be found in these mines, but no exact calculations can be made at present. When the investigation is completed it will surely be found that the deposit contains a much larger quantity than the 100,000,000 tons indicated by the present workings.

Jan 2, 1916

By V. R. Garfias

Principal events in petroleum operations of Mexico during 1934 have been the completion of three producing wells in the Poza Rica area and the plans for the expansion of operations of the Cia. de Petroleos de Mexico, S.A. (Petromex). Production for 1934 is estimated at close to 38,000,000 bbl., an increase of 4,000,000 bbl. over the previous year; an increase due in large part to the successful development in Poza Rica. The output of the South fields (Golden Lane) and Tehuantepec fields also increased somewhat during the year. Production of natural gasoline increased from 382,000 to 431,000 bbl. in 1934. Crude run in local refineries is estimated at 26,000,000bbl., some4,000,000bbl. more than the previous year. Exclusive of bunker fuel exports totaled 24,000,000 bbl., or 3,000,000 more than in 1933. Domestic consumption increased approximately 500,000,bbl. during the year, reaching a total of close to 13,600,000 bbl., exclusive of ships' bunkers. A total of 148 wells were completed as compared to 91 in 1933 and 40 in 1932. In proven areas, 133 completions resulted in 54 producers and 79 failures. The 15 wildcats drilled during 1934 gave no encouraging results. Seven of these were located in the border zone of northeastern Mexico; three tested possible northeast extensions of the Northern fields; two were drilled for possible extensions of the "Golden Lane" and three were completed in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Fields Northern Fields (Heavy Oil District).—There were 34 producing wells and 71 failures completed in the Northern fields, as compared to 20 producers and 20 failures in 1933. Practically all new producers were drilled to the shallower San Felipe formation, while wells drilled to the deeper Tamasopo limestone encountered salt water. Production of the field totaled 11,890,000 bbl., a decrease of 7.5 per cent from the previous year. Acid treatment was attempted during the year in seven wells

Jan 1, 1935

By Truman Aldrich

THE Clinton group of the Silurian holds the red or fossiliferous ore; its outcrops have been mapped by the State or U. S. Geological Survey. This group is from 100 to 500 ft. thick in Alabama. There are places where it is entirely missing (doubtless islands in the Silurian Sea). In Etowah County, in part of Greasy Cove and vicinity, the upper seam is a coral reef impregnated with the red ore; in this same county, step, faults bring up the ore in three or four separate ridges practically parallel. In Blount County and on Raccoon Mountain, the ore runs under the carboniferous rocks and outcrops in the valleys. In examining some bore holes made in drilling for oil, the writer found the Clinton group continuing under the Warrior coal field wherever the drill has gone deep enough. It demonstrates the possibility of a source for red ore not seriously thought of until lately. The following bore holes made principally for oil, given in Bulletin No. 22, Geological Survey of Alabama, show the presence of either ore or red rock, and suggest vast resources yet to be outlined and developed for ore in the future. The locations are given by number on the map. Hole No. 1 was drilled 6 miles southeast of Russellville, Franklin County, by the Woodward Oil & Gas Co. It passed through 160 ft. of Clinton, but only a small show of red ore was found at 1280-1400 feet. A test well, No. 2, drilled near Atwood, Franklin County, in section 26, township 8, range 14, penetrated the Clinton at 1608 ft. and found 38 ft. of limy red rock, also 8 ft. of some blood red ending at 1820 ft., making 46 ft. of red rock in all. It is reported that some good ore was cut through but this work was done by a churn drill. The hole was continued by diamond drill from here. At least 400 ft. of the formation was classified as Clinton.

Jan 10, 1924

By T. A. Rickard

Clement Le Neve Foster was born at Camberwell on March 23, 1841, his father being Peter Le Neve Foster, who was secretary of the Society of Arts for 26 years. As a boy of 12 he was sent to school at Boulogne, receiving a preliminary education there; and in 1857, when only 16 years old, he took his degree of Bachelor of Science from the University of France. In October of the same year he returned to London and entered the Royal School of Mines, which was then in Jermyn Street. He distinguished himself by winning a scholarship and a medal, and by securing his degree as Associate of the Royal School of Mines in the abbreviated period of two years. This was followed by a year at the Bergakademie at Freiberg; subseque1:tly he visited several mining districts in Germany and Hungary. On returning to England, in November, 1860, he received from Sir Roderick Murchison an appointment upon the Geological Survey. During five years he was engaged in field-work, first on the Wealden beds in Kent and Sussex, and then in Derbyshire and Yorkshire. At this time his evenings were largely devoted to reading for a degree from London University. In 1861 he matriculated, obtaining the Bachelor of Science in 1863, with honors in biology and a University scholarship in geology; in 1864 he passed the two examinations entitling him to the Bachelor of Arts degree, and in 1865 he received the degree of Doctor of Science. In 1865 he succeeded Mr. Richard Pearce as lecturer to the Miners' Association of Cornwall and Devon. At the same time he became the curator to the museum of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall at Penzance, a member of the council in 1873, and a life-member in 1874; he made frequent donations to the museum, besides contributing several valuable papers to

Jan 1, 1905