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By C. J. Johnson, C. J. Bise

Abstract - As the US coal industry moves into the next century, it is becoming more apparent that the effective application of new technology is the only way it can remain competitive in the energy marketplace. Examples of this emphasis are with us today in such diverse areas as face- ventilation and excavation-equipment applications. The focus of this new technology is directed toward improvements in health and safety, cost control, and productivity. Room-and-pillar mining accounts for approximately 68% of the nation's underground coal production; this percentage is not expected to decrease markedly in the near future. As such, this paper analyzes the impacts of the changing techno- logical climate on future room-and-pillar operations by comparing a base-case section (current) to three scenarios incorporating new or emerging technology. A microcomputer-based comparative analysis will reflect the changes in section production and costs.

Jan 1, 1990

By J. H. Jennekens

INTRODUCTION "Most people would probably agree that some degree of government control and regulation is essential in modern society, and it will likely continue as an important part of our social organization for the foreseeable future. But most of us tend to be ambivalent about it. In one situation or another we are likely to see government commitment to social benefit programs or regulatory devices either as an expanding encroachment on the freedom of the individual or as an undue interference with private enterprise or with the rules of the market place. But even where there is agreement as to the desirability of government initiatives, either in general or in a particular context, it by no means follows that there will be approval of the mechanisms or procedures used or the means of carrying them out." The above statement is taken from a 1980 Working Paper of the Law Reform Commission of Canada prepared in connection with its study of the exercise of administrative law in Canada and the practices and procedures of administrative tribunals. The Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB) is one such administrative tribunal, and as the federal nuclear regulatory authority, it is responsible for licensing the production, possession and use of nuclear materials, equipment and facilities and enforcing compliance with licence conditions governing the health, safety, security and environmental aspects of the activities involved. Although the AECB was established 35 years ago with the passage in August 1946 of the Atomic Energy Control Act, like many administrative tribunals its role and functions and the regulatory process which it applies have evolved significantly during this period. The changes which have taken place over the years reflect not only the vast scientific and technological developments which have occurred but also the marked differences between contemporary society and the social milieu of the mid-1940s. However, the basic philosophy of nuclear regulation in Canada and the underlying principles of the regulatory process have changed very little. Certainly, the process is far more open in terms of the general public, it has become appreciably more comprehensive and systematic in terms of the depth and extent of both the pre- and post-licensing technical evaluations which are conducted and the ensuing compliance program. Furthermore, it now applies to the whole of the nuclear fuel cycle as well as the industrial, agricultural and medical applications of radionuclides. Nevertheless the following fundamental principles remain unchanged: a. primary responsibility for achieving high standards of nuclear safety and environmental protection in the design, construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear facilities resides with the licensee; b. the credibility of the nuclear regulatory process depends not only upon its technical correctness and practicability, but also upon acceptance by the public-at-large of its perceived effectiveness and efficiency; c. regulatory criteria and principles should be concise, clearly stated and understandable; d. regulatory decision-making should be based upon stated criteria and principles taking into account pertinent scientific and technical facts only; e. fairness and impartiality must characterize all regulatory decision-making; f. the regulatory process should be subject to a comprehensive periodic review and evaluation to ensure that it continues to produce the desired results at justified costs. EXPLANATORY NOTES The mere statement of a set of principles is a relatively simple task. Far more difficult is the explanation of what these principles mean in practical terms. To stipulate that a licensee bears the primary responsibility for achieving and maintaining high standards of nuclear safety and environmental protection may be regarded by some as an attempt by the regulatory agency to evade the responsibilities assigned to it. However, this is not the case. It is unrealistic for anyone to claim that a licensee only complies with accepted norms of public and occupational health and safety and of environmental protection because of the fear of prosecution. The vast majority of citizens conduct their affairs in a proper manner not because there

Jan 1, 1981

By Saurabh Rastogi, Vikram Shishodia, B. Pitchumani

Comminution is a unit operation which consumes major part of energy in mineral processing industries such as fertilizer production. Ball mills are widely used for size reduction of a given ore to the liberation size that is required in further beneficiation processes. In grinding of materials much effort is concentrated on control of top size of the product and this results in production of fines, also creates secondary problems of pollution due to the difficulty in the collection of fine particles. The present work has been carried out to control product size distribution for rock phosphate grinding in an Industrial Ball Mill of 600 TPD. The plant data are taken for a given feed distribution and mill operating conditions. The information at various Ball Size distributions are collected. The comminution functions such as specific rate of breakage and breakage distribution functions are estimated by back calculation technique to solve the mass balance equation. A simulation program is written to study the product size distribution obtained for various ball size distribution.

Jan 1, 1993

By P. Eng. Daniel Kelly

INTRODUCTION The Astoria property is located in the prolifically mineralized Abitibi greenstone belt and is one of the most advanced projects presently under development by Yorbeau Resources Inc. This property, which hosts the Astoria gold deposit, is located in the southern part of Rouyn township, Abitibi area, Quebec, 4 km south of the city of Rouyn-Noranda (Figure 1). The Astoria deposit has been the subject of underground development for over a half century, beginning with Granada Rouyn Mining Co. in the 1930's and followed by Astoria Rouyn Mines Ltd. in the 1940's. Yorbeau Resources Inc. acquired the property in 1984 and has, since then, conducted numerous exploration programs on this gold deposit. The diluted reserves of the Astoria deposit are estimated at 1,3 million metric tons grading 6,14 grams of gold per metric ton (1.4 million st at 0.18 oz/st). This reserve figure is based on the results of surface and underground exploration carried out from January 1986 to June 1987 and includes ore in the proven, probable and possible categories. This paper is divided into two sections. The first part includes a summary of the geological environment including a description of the gold bearing zones and a short discussion on wall rock alteration. The second part of this paper reviews the underground work and the objective of the ongoing exploration program.

Jan 1, 1988

By J. van der Walt

In hot deep mines the ventilation and refrigeration requirements are determined primarily by the magnitude of the various sources of heat, and where in the mine they arise. Refrigeration is expensive, and in order to ensure that it is utilized effectively and at the lowest possible operating costs it is important that careful attention be given to the selection of plant, and how the cooling is to be distributed. The paper outlines the essential features of the highly effective strategy that has evolved in recent years in cooling deep mines in South Africa.

Jan 1, 1980

By Thomas F. Stinson

Energy-producing states see severance taxes as attractive sources of increased revenues for otherwise tight budgets. Consumers in energy-poor states, however, protest that current rates are excessive and have moved to obtain a reduction. The US Supreme Court heard two cases questioning such taxes during its 1981 term, and Congress, in each of its last two sessions, has seriously considered measures placing a ceiling on severance tax rates. Although discussions usually focus on coal severance taxes levied by Montana and Wyoming, ramifications of changes in national policy are much larger, potentially affecting mineral taxes in all states. Severance taxes yield substantial revenues in some states, as illustrated in the accompanying table. In fiscal 1980, Texas collected more than $1.5 billion from such taxes, while Louisiana, Alaska, and Oklahoma collected $525 million, $507 million, and $436 million, respectively. Oil and natural gas production were the major items taxed. While the table shows only the 10 states with the largest severance tax collections, a total of 17 states had severance tax receipts exceeding $10 million in 1980. The enormous increases in severance tax revenue between 1970 and 1980 can be seen from the table by comparing columns A and B. For the 10 states shown, revenues increased from $650 million to $3.8 billion during that period, due to a combination of higher prices, increased production, and new or increased taxes. In most states, increases in prices and production were more evident than higher tax rates. Although the revenue increase is impressive, it understates the extent of changes occurring during the past decade. Since tax collections are shown for fiscal 1980, the full impact of the decontrol of domestic oil prices is not evident. Also, taxes on natural gas reflect controlled prices. When full de-control of natural gas occurs, significantly higher revenues can be expected in gas-producing states, even if tax rates, production, and world prices remain constant. These increases in severance tax revenues, coupled with further increases expected to accompany natural gas decontrol, have produced fears that a substantial transfer of income is taking place from residents of energy-poor states to those living in energy-rich areas. Others worry that increased severance tax revenues will be used to substitute for a substantial portion of state taxes that would have otherwise been collected from firms and individuals. The resulting improvements in tax climate, it is thought, may encourage firms and workers to migrate to energy-producing states. While these issues are often portrayed as pitting energy have-nots against the haves, such is not entirely the case. Much of the original impetus for limits on coal taxes came from Texas residents, the state collecting the most severance tax revenue. One way of gaining perspective on these concerns is by examining severance taxes per capita and as a percent of state tax collections (see columns C and D in the table). When this is done, Alaska, where 1980 taxes on oil and gas production totaled more than $1300 per capita (and 35% of all state tax collections), stands out as a special case. There, the state was able to eliminate some individual taxes, place revenues in a permanent trust fund, and consider offering a rebate of some previous income

Jan 4, 1982

By Lucien Duckstein

The purpose of this paper is to give recommendations for utilization of water resources in a mining region, considering also water supply and environment; the case study of mining for coal and bauxite under the karstic aquifer of the Transdanubian mountain of Hungary is used to illustrate the approach, which consists in formulating a static multiobjective control model and solving it by compromise programming. The three activities of regional mineral resource exploitation, water supply and environmental protection are represented by different objectives which cannot be expressed in commensuerable units. Thus, a solution which is optimal for one objective is usually far from being optimal with respect to the other two objectives. As a result, we are not seeking an optimal solution for the conjunctive regional system, but a good compromise, trade-off or "satisfactum" (1), (2).

Jan 1, 1979

By Gösta W. Diehl

During the past five years the use of all-hydraulic drilling equipment has increased rapidly, and we have now reached a point where the hydraulic drill has become an alternative to be seriously considered for every drilling operation. The hydraulic drills have many advantages over pneumatic drills, but they also have certain characteristics, which makes a potential user hesitate before making the switch. And when the decision to use hydraulic drills has been made, the user then faces another choice of equal difficulty: the choice between different hydraulic systems. This paper discusses some of the factors to be taken into account when considering hydraulic drilling equipment for rapid tunneling in hard to medium hard rock. THE CHOICE BETWEEN HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT The choice between a hydraulic and a pneumatic drill is much more than just that: It is a choice between two different systems. The choice is usually based on the productivity, economy or ergonomy of the system. However, also other factors should be considered, such as service capabilities and training requirements. And finally the choice will be influenced by the need to acquire know-how in the new technology. Productivity If the prime consideration is to achieve the highest possible tunneling speed, then the high penetration rates of the hydraulic

Jan 1, 1979

By P. L. Dunn, G. T. Adel, E. B. Cruz

Automatic control of fine-coal cleaning circuits has traditionally been limited by a lack of adequate sensors. Although several nuclear-based analyzers are available, none have seen widespread acceptance. In this investigation, image analysis is used for the on-line determination of ash contents in fine-coal slurries. The ash content of a flotation tailings stream is correlated to the mean gray level of the slurry. Based on a 90% prediction interval, an analysis of sensor performance indicates an accuracy of 73[±] 4% ash over a range of from 65% to 90% ash. While the results are comparable, the video-based system costs only a fraction of what a nuclear-based analyzer costs. The sensor is now installed at the Middle Fork preparation plant, which is owned by Pittston Coal Co.

Jan 1, 1999

By John E. Tilton

Mining is one of the oldest human activities. It goes back at least to the Bronze Age and possibly even the Stone Age. The Romans mined copper in Spain and tin in England some 2,000 years ago. The writings of Agricola in the 16th century show that mining was important in the Middle Ages. Today, more mineral commodities are mined in greater tonnages than ever before. This long and fascinating history closely tied with the economic development of the human race is one of the charms of the mining industry. It also, unfortunately, gives rise to some widespread misconceptions. Old industries are generally considered stodgy with mature and stagnant technologies. Costs tend not to decline as in newer industries, and may even increase with real wages. Costs are particularly expected to rise in the case of mining as the best mineral deposits are depleted. Thus, mining is often thought of as a sunset industry, destined to decline over time as the resource base is depleted. These perceptions have several important implications. They argue against economic policies that rely too heavily on mining and mineral processing to foster growth and development. The best and the brightest young people, along with society's other valuable resources, should be encouraged to enter newer industries. There the technological opportunities and the prospects for growth are more promising. These perceptions also suggest that the ability to compete in the mining industry depends largely on the quality of a company's or country's mineral deposits. Mining will take place first in countries with the lowest-cost deposits. Once these are exhausted, mining will shift to countries with the next best deposits. From time to time, new discoveries may also produce a shift in the location of mining, [ ] and may even for a time keep the costs and prices of mineral products from rising. Over the longer term, however, rising costs and prices are inevitable, as the world is forced to exploit poorer mineral deposits.

Jan 1, 1997

By Gerrit V. R. Goodman, Edward F. Divers, Charles D. Taylor

Future mining systems will possess the ability to cut from crosscut to crosscut where advances could exceed 30.5 m (100ft). However, limitations arise when ventilating such mining systems. In deep advance mining, there will be no workers at the face to manually advance ventilation tubing or curtain. Additionally, traditional methods provide no means for maintaining face ventilation after the miner backs out. Problems such as these have suggested the need for innovative ventilation methods compatible with deep advance mining systems. The Bureau of Mines is currently considering a number of innovative ventilation schemes. One such method is the use of a jet fan to ventilate a deep cut. A jet fan is simply a freestanding fan using little or no ducting to direct the ventilation flow. Previous testing in large metal-nonmetal mine entries showed that jet fans provided adequate face ventilation for deep advances in large headings. Current testing will determine the application of jet fans in ventilating smaller coal mine entries. Another approach considered compatible with deep advance mining will use either exhausting or blowing tubing that can be remotely extended from crosscut to crosscut. During the mining cycle, such a device would extend automatically as the miner sumps into the face. The Bureau of Mines is considering several different operating designs using this tubing.

Jan 1, 1991

By Roger Holmberg

INTRODUCTION The driving of drifts is a very important aspect of underground mining. It is not unusual for the percent¬age of rock broken during development in a mine using sublevel caving, for example, to be as much as 25% of the total. If one also considers the amount broken for transport, ventilation, and exploration drifts, one can easily understand that the planning and excavation of drifts play a major part in the total economics of the mine (Fig. 1). Increasing mechanization in mining demands larger tunnel areas for transport and mining equipment. With modern machines the hard work involved in using hand¬held pushers is gone, and a better environment is achieved. More rational methods could be used, but much of the experience the working man acquired by working close to the rock face (such as utilizing the natural weak planes in the rock when he placed the drill¬ing holes) has unfortunately been lost. By having sepa¬rate shifts for drilling, loading, and hauling, more atten¬tion has to be placed upon a well-designed drilling pattern. Some reduction in the number of holes required can be achieved with mechanized drilling because of the larger holes that can be produced. On the other hand, it is probably not possible to achieve the same precision as with pneumatic pushers, and it is difficult to utilize the larger holes because these cause more damage to the re¬maining rock. Recently, however, the precision has be¬come very good with the parallel booms and automatic devices for setting the lookout angle (Fig. 2). A larger arch of the drift roof requires a more carefully executed blasting procedure than before in order to prevent rock fall and to insure a sufficiently long stand-up time. In this chapter, empirical relationships that can be used to design an economic and optimal drift blasting design will be presented. The principles of the calcula¬tion method are based upon the earlier work of Langefors and Kihlström (1963) and Gustafsson (1973). COMPARISON OF EXPLOSIVES To provide for the use of various explosives it is necessary to have a basis of comparison. Several meth¬ods have been developed to characterize the strength of an explosive. Some examples are comparison of values given by (1) calculated explosion energies; (2) the ballistic mortar test; (3) the Trauzl lead block test; (4) the brisance test; (5) the weight strength concept; and (6) the underwater test. However, most of these meth¬ods should be used carefully when stating the breaking

Jan 1, 1982

By Thomas E. Newman

This paper is a case study using new laser-terrain-mapping technology by EagleScan, Inc., for creating topographic maps. Holnam, Inc., has used this technology to create maps and volumetric calculations of several mines in the United States. The information is superior to conventional methods through accuracy, manpower, time, and cost. Holnam, Inc., was the first cement manufacturer to use the Digital Airborne Topographic Imaging System (DATIS?). The technology uses the DATIS? to produce high-resolution terrain maps and volumetric assessments of any area. DATIS? is a mapping instrument that integrates (1) a Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) instrument to measure terrain elevation using laser light, (2) a large-format digital camera, (3) a relative position Global Positioning System (GPS) to measure aircraft position, and (4) an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) to measure aircraft attitude. The DATIS? can measure up to 220,000 elevation samples per mil. The system continually collects data on the aircraft's position and measures the time for each laser pulse transmission to return from the ground, giving each sample a GPS reference. The system can operate at night, in overcast sky, and during high-wind conditions and can measure terrain below vegetation cover, unlike standard aerial photography used for traditional surveying and mapping. Surveyed ground-control panels are no longer necessary with this new technology, and only one ground GPS base station located within 60 mi from the aircraft position is required. A computer elevation-point data file is created with the x, y, z coordinates of each laser elevation sample. With this file, CAD engineering programs can create topographic maps that rival products using conventional aerial mapping techniques. Volumetric measurements of stockpiles and pits are also available due to the high density of points collected from an area. This new technology radically changes the turnaround time for map users, giving a product in the format used by today's cartographers. The time line from flight to maps is measured in days instead of weeks.

Jan 1, 1999

I am deeply honored and grateful to receive the prestigious Gaudin Award. Frankly, I find myself amazed to be included in the company of those outstanding individuals who have previously received this recognition. I am humbly honored to receive this award from an industrial research group. Gaudin was an internationally respected leader of mineral processing. His research contributions widely covered the whole spectrum of mineral processing science and technology, including comminution, size distribution, electrostatics, magnetics, thickening and, especially, the development of flotation theory and application. In his later career, he increased his emphasis on hydrometallurgical technology. In fact, one of his most notable practical contributions was in the development of leaching and ion exchange purification of uranium from low-grade ores. Gaudin catalyzed the trend in mineral processing toward engineering science for a better understanding of process mechanisms and kinetics. He said that those working in academic fields should have an underlying responsibility to the industry they represent. This imposed on him the objective of seeking out research areas that had some relevance to industry's problems. He said, "research without an audience cannot survive." Gaudin performed a most vital service, both in the areas of research in which he was actively involved and through his less-direct influence on current research by his many former students and their students in turn. Interestingly, Gaudin's strength has influenced Newmont Mining Corp. His favorite student was Plato Malozemoff. He had a long and distinguished career with Newmont, beginning as staff engineer in 1945, serving as Newmont's president for more than 30 years and as chairman of the company for 20 years. Newmont's greatest growth occurred during his leadership. Another one of Gaudin's graduate students from Montana School of Mines, Oscar F. Tangel, joined Newmont in 1967. He was a vice president of research and development until 1986. In their efforts, Newmont built a research group, developing the technologies of exploration, geophysics and metallurgy. The Newmont technical facility is named in honor of Malozamoff as "a leader in the development and implementation of new technologies." The mining industry is facing very difficult times, especially in the metals industry. Most metal prices have declined and are still not stable. Most domestic mining companies have largely done away with in-house research and development. Many are reluctant to invest in technology development for which there is not an immediate need. The metal mining industries are focusing on reducing operating costs to survive. Newmont is in the same situation. I appreciate that Newmont's management believes in the importance of research and technology and the impact technology has on the company's value. At Newmont, technology development involves working in the area of applied research. The connections from academic fundamental research to applied research and finally to process development and implementation are very important to develop a new technology. Fundamental research is our foundation, our guidance, giving us direction, providing the principal and mechanism and understanding why it works. Understanding the why will lead to further innovative development. Applied research needs to find the approach to reality, how it works, how to make it better and how to commercialize it. Process development and implementation needs a strong leadership, requires long-term commitment, makes improvements in practical engineering and finally develops an economically favorable process. Implementation is the most important stage in making research a reality. Each stage needs to give feedback to the other stages. Problems need to be understood and solved. Otherwise, the new technology will go nowhere. Simplicity of operation is a key of success in any plant. Necessity is the

Jan 1, 2002

By Satya Harpalani

An investigation was carried out to study the microscopic structure of coal in order to understand the phenomenon of methane migration. A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEH) was used to study the surface and pore structure of bituminous coal taken from an underground mine. Micrographs obtained showed the highly porous nature of coal which explains the large quantities of gases that remain within the pores in the compressed and adsorbed forms. These micrographs further showed that most of the pores within the coal matrix are the 'dead-end' type and do not contribute much towards the flow of gas. The most important finding was that solid coal has a network of cracks and fractures indicating that it is these cracks that are primarily responsible for the gas flow, rather than the pores. The size and distribution of the pores within coal influence the capacity of coal to retain methane but movement of the gas molecules is the responsibility of the microfractures. Any mathematical modeling to simulate gas flow through coal must take this into account. For purposes of modeling, the structure of coal can be considered to have dual porosity. First, the gas molecules are released from the pores and there is a gradual migration towards the fractures. Once the gas reaches the fractures, its movement is eased greatly along these fractures.

Jan 1, 1987

By N. Edmonson

Introduction An examination of statistics for the world phosphate fertilizer industry since 1980 reveals that there is an increasing tendency for fertilizer-manufacturing activity to concentrate in the areas of phosphate-rock mining. The economic justification for this resource-oriented strategy is clear. The choice between shipping phosphate rock, a comparatively low-value product, and shipping a more valuable finished fertilizer product will always, as long as cost considerations control the decision, be resolved in favor of the latter. The historical existence of substantial phosphate fertilizer-manufacturing capacity, which is oriented toward fertilizer-consuming activities and dependent on imported phosphate rock, shows that narrow cost considerations have not always determined the industry's location. One is entitled to ask what conditions have changed to precipitate the observed relocations, and how permanent are these changes. These questions are the subject of this investigation. Recent trends in world phosphate trade Since 1980, the changing pattern of world trade in phosphate materials reflects an increased interest in manufacturing phosphate fertilizer in rock-producing areas. This is shown by the decline in the total tonnage of phosphate rock being traded worldwide compared to world consumption of phosphate fertilizers (Fig. 1). This relative decline has continued since 1984, which is a longer period of time than could be explained by temporary cyclical market factors. Other evidence corroborates this conclusion. The world's phosphate-rock production is relatively concentrated geographically. In 1992, the top ten producing countries accounted for 92% of world production. Figure 2 shows that the share of world fertilizer production in the top ten rock producers has increased. Yet, further evidence of the direction of trade changes can be had by looking at the pattern of the world's sulfur trade. The first step in the manufacture of any of the widely used phosphate fertilizer products is the acidulation of phosphate rock with sulfuric acid. In most instances, phosphate fertilizer producers have found it economical to produce their own sulfuric acid by burning elemental sulfur, and such operations account for over 60% of all sulfur consumption in the world. 1 Therefore, a concentration of phosphate fertilizer production in rock-producing countries should produce a similar concentration of sulfur imports in the same countries. Figure 3 suggests that there has been a tendency since 1989 for sulfur exports to go increasingly to the rockproducing countries. World phosphate-location strategy is not limited to the alternatives of shipping rock and shipping finished fertilizers. A third alternative consists of producing phosphoric acid, the principal phosphate fertilizer intermediate, at the rock deposit, and then exporting it to market-oriented ammonium phosphate plants. This arrangement offers the importing country the advantages of shipping a more concentrated product while retaining the economic multiplier benefits of a domestic high-analysis fertilizer industry. India, and several other countries, imports merchant-grade phosphoric acid to use as input for the domestic value-added fertilizer industries. For various reasons, the trade in phosphoric acid has never quite lived up to the promise suggested by the foregoing discussion. Figure 4 shows no growth in this trade in the last ten years, either in absolute terms or in relation to the world's consumption of phosphoric acid. Most of the decline in the trade in phosphorous in rock form has been replaced with trade in finished fertilizers. The trade in superphosphoric acid was a growth activity in the late 1970s with the growth in US exports to the USSR, and this trade survived the Carter-era embargoes of US-Soviet trade. However, no additional sizable markets for superphosphoric acid developed, and other suppliers sought out the Soviet market. The problem with superphosphoric acid is that the cost of its incremental concentration is as great as the savings from shipping the more concentrated product. The Soviet market was a special case. The political breakup of the Soviet Union disrupted the superphosphoric acid trade after 1991 and led to a shutdown of the US export capacity.

Jan 1, 1996

By James M. Barker

Marketing is the linchpin of the industrial-mineral (IM) industry. Without markets and consumers for IM products, all other associated IM activities are superfluous. The simple existence of an IM deposit does not mean that it can be exploited. A dynamic interaction between exploration (geology), mining, processing, transport, marketing, sales, and consumers is required for profits. Geology dictates the existence of a deposit, but markets dictate its development, and transportation provides the connection. This is true to such an extent that marketing commonly is called the exploration phase of IMs. Marketing is strategic and includes long-range market-development and planning activities, whereas selling is tactical and more focused on day-to-day consumer interactions. Each will help the other when properly done. Many producers of IMs have failed because of inadequate marketing skill, information, and practice. Over many years at the Montana Bureau of Mines, the many developers seeking technical assistance to find an IM deposit, but who had no marketing plan, always failed. In contrast, the few who sought assistance first on marketing, with the IM deposit to be found later, always succeeded (Richard Berg, personal communication, 1998). Marketing has many facets helped by geologists who must be aware of what marketing is attempting to do. A geologist needs to understand many aspects of IMs: location (deposits, plants, consumers), processing (specifications), transportation (truck, rail, barge, ship), competition (local, regional, national, international), substitutes, pricing, and new developments and market forces of all kinds. Some needed skills are not taught formally to geologists, so well-rounded self-education and on-the-job training are the way a geologist normally enters into IM marketing. The IM geologist generally is associated with marketing either by helping to prepare a market study or by acting on the results of one. Preparing a market study is a two-part process. The first part is relatively simple but requires a time-consuming collation of data into an IM survey (mostly past-and present-oriented). The more difficult and much more important second part entails expanding the IM survey into a market evaluation (mainly future-oriented) that emphasizes forecasting, timing, location, and specific products. A market evaluation generally boils down to formulating the right questions to ask of the right persons. One very good question to ask is, "What could be the market for this specific IM?" while thinking for yourself without excessive recourse to gossip, rumors, promoters, developers, or (at times) IM experts. The evaluation must prove that market potential exists and suggests a marketing plan. Effective marketing is an ongoing process, with the initial marketing plan modified over time, using wide and continuous input to avoid tunnel vision. Industrial-mineral markets are based either on commodity (lower-priced, basic-processing) minerals or specialty (higher-priced, value-added) minerals. IM marketing methods are either product-driven (commodity minerals), a more traditional approach, or market-driven (specialty minerals), but these are neither mutually exclusive nor is one always better than the other. Focusing too much on specialty minerals can lead to problems. A blend of commodity products with specialty products commonly lowers risk and enhances long-term profits. The highest profits occur in specialty minerals at the cost of higher risk and complexity and require intelligent marketing, versatile technical services, and creative research and development. Industrial minerals are best served by an industrial-marketing approach rather than a consumer approach. Modern industrial marketing emphasizes the consumer using the "marketing concept." The marketing concept focuses all management and operational activities on total consumer management and satisfaction similar to the total quality management approaches to excellence.

Jan 1, 1999

By L. R. Berry

The successful selection of a slurry pump depends on the accuracy and completeness of the information provided for the application. Inaccurate or incomplete information can result in incorrect pump selection and / or operational problems. Some information is more critical to the selection process than other information. A full description of the slurry (liquid -solid mixture) including the particle size distribution and maximum concentration, the flow, head and NPSH requirements are most important for successful slurry pump selection and operation. Common problems resulting from improper slurry pump selection will be discussed to illustrate the need for correct selection requirements.

Jan 1, 1996

By H. Zhu

Qualitative and interpretative information as obtained from geological and/or geophysical studies, in addition to precise measurement, is incorporated into the estimation process through an indicator variable. The indicator conditioned estimator is formulated as a cokriging and its expression is data value dependent as opposed to that of the traditional kriging estimators. The solution of the dual cokriging system pro-vides simultaneously an estimate of the unknown and an estimate of the conditional probability that the unknown belongs to a specific population or class. Being an unbiased and minimum-error-variance estimator by construction, the indicator conditioned estimator is better in the least square sense than the ordinary kriging estimator because it uses additional information carried by the indicator data.

Jan 1, 1989

By James G. Tilton

Throughout the world, sedimentary basins are exploited for many different minerals. Frequently, the extractive methods conflict with one another. A case in point is the proximity of oil and gas operations and the mining of coal. Generally, the interference between the two industries lies in the fact that the reserves over- lie or underlie one another. Mining of coal generally is developed on a rectangular pattern in a horizontal mode while oil and gas drilling is developed on a radial pattern in a vertical mode. Coal mining has exhausted vast acreages in various basins with many of those basins being drilled for oil and gas. Those existing wells create problems by requiring the unrecoverable coal pillars to support the well bore, or to make special provisions in order to mine through an existing well. The system works ... more or less; but there are little or no provisions made for additional drilling unless the vast majority of those new wells are drilled through mined-out sections (gob) of those mines. Many states have rules and regulations governing the drilling of oil and gas wells through gob; but, some companies and some regulatory agencies or personnel have deemed such drilling as a hazard to the mining operations. This paper explores the history, technical standards, and safety aspects of drilling oil and gas wells though the gob of worked-out and active mines. It is the opinion of the author that such drilling can be conducted safely while eliminating the re- quired changes in mine projections and the loss of recoverable coal in the form of well pillars.

Jan 1, 1997