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By R. V. Ramani, P. M. T. White, D. Sutton

5.1 Incorporation with the Master Design Simulator Figure 1 diagrammatically illustrates the interaction between the various sub-systems that go to make up the total Master Design Simulator. As a total system, all sub-systems will be scheduled as needed by the controlling program. The data require¬ments for each will be made available either by providing common storage in core or by outputting data to external storage devices such as magnetic tape, disk, drum, etc. The incorporation of the Geology and Reserves sub-system into the total system involves the establishment of an interface through which data may be readily dissemminated in either direction. This interface will be provided by a geological data library in which all information available from the sub-system is stored and can be readily accessed by the main program and/or other sub-systems. In Figure 7, the information flow between the Geology and Reserves sub¬system and other sub-systems is shown. 5.2 Independent Function Geology and Reserves sub-system is capable of functioning as an independent unit or in direct communication with another sub¬system. This is possible by either continued use of the data library or by redirecting output to other peripheral devices separate from the total system libraries. (Figure 8).

Jan 1, 1974

By Victor E. Kral

"INTRODUCTION The Phelps Stokes iron deposit, also known as the Iron Mountain claim, was examined by G. L. Thompson, an engineer of the Bureau of Mines, in January 1943. As a result, the Division of Geophysical Exploration 3/ made a magnetorater survey of the deposit in June 1944, and the Mining Branch included it in a,project to explore Nevada iron deposits.The Bureau explored the deposit from September to November 1944 by means of 643 feet of diamond drilling and 445 feet of trenching holes were drilled, all of which penetrated more than: 100 feet of good-grade magnetite, although nearly all the ore except that found in the first hole contained an excessive amount of sulfur. Trenching was done largely over the first two holes, PS-1 and PS-2, and exposed the full width of the ore.The deposit is in Nye County, Nevada, 7.7 miles east of Gabbs. The property was discovered in 1902 was patented in 1907. There has been no production from the property and except for the Bureau's investigation,,has not been, explored since it was patented.Magnetite is the principal ore mineral; it occurs as fine-grained particles associated with sulfides and cemented with talc and calcite."

Feb 1, 1947

By Thomas P. Meloy

"The presence of respirable quartz-bearing mineral par-ticles has been well documented in many coal mines, and the Mine Safety and Health Administration regulations address the quartz content of mine dusts. Unfortunately, the correlation between the quantity of respirable quartz-bearing mineral particles and the pathogenicity of the dust is not strong. Work is currently underway by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health/U.S. Bureau of Mines and work is being included in the Respirable Dust Center Program by Dr. Seehra to determine the surface availability of quartz in mixed composition mine dusts. However, this paper propose a possible source of surface quartz or a spe¬cial region in the coal that may contribute to the pathogenicity of selected particles in the respirable dust.Assumed in this model is the hypothesis that either the cleat surface is coated with quartz or some cytotoxic sub-stance that in the body is capable of destroying macrophage and thus inducing a fibrotic response (1) that during the frag¬mentation a reasonable proportion of the respirable size coal particles contain some of the original cleat surface and that these particles have the same order of in vivo cytotoxicity as do the quartz particles. It may be that these cleat surfaced respirable size particles are only contributory to the overall pathogenicity of the coal dust, nevertheless, there are enough of these particles to to considered as a potential source of the cytotoxic dust particles.This paper demonstrates that if the cleat surfaces are mineralized with quartz or have a pathogenic coating, then in many mines there will be enough respirable coal dust particles containing some cleat surface to cause a fibrotic reaction. To understand why some of the dust particles contain as part of their surface some of the cleat surface, consider what happens when a beer bottle is broken. While there are a large number of beer bottle fragments, many of the fragments, particularly the larger fragment sizes, will have as a fraction of their surface part of the original beer bottle surface. The model and mathematics of this problem have been worked out by Meloy.(2-4)In the homogeneous IAC model, (2-5) a fragment or par-ticle resulting from comminution is equally likely to occur anywhere in the material being broken. Therefore the probability of a particle of size x having part of the cleat surface in it, p(x), is proportional to x. Thus:"

Mar 1, 1989

By M. M. Fine

In an experimental study by the Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with National Lead Co., the roast-flotation process was found to be an effective means of upgrading certain cobalt-nickel stockpiles. The research was undertaken to determine whether the process could yield an enriched feed, with a minimum cobalt content of 6.0 percent, for the company refinery. The stockpiles (products of the company Fredericktown, Mo., milling operations) were essentially complex sulfides of cobalt, nickel, copper, lead, and iron, 1 sample of which contained 2.84 percent Co and 3.57 percent Ni. After a controlled oxidizing roast at 400° C., laboratory flotation with conventional sulfhydric reagents yielded an enriched concentrate analyzing 9.22 percent Co and 11.43 percent Ni, with recoveries of 84.9 and 85.8 percent, respectively. These are typical laboratory data; other data indicated higher grades were possible but at reduced recoveries. A brief, continuous campaign verified the applicability of the process to the raw material in question but was not continued long enough to establish optimum conditions. As a consequence, the results of the large-scale tests did not equal those obtained in the laboratory but definitely confirm the beneficiation possible from the roast-flotation process.

Jan 1, 1958

By Thomas V. Falkie, R. Venkataramani

The method of analysis was to test a large model containing potentially significant variables and on the basis of the results obtained, to reduce the model to one containing only the essential significant variables. This stepwise procedure of "scanning" a large proposed model and subsequently condensing the model consisted of two cycles of the same series of computational procedures. Data Preparation A majority of the variables measured were continuous over a specific range of values; for example, the variable "Width Ratio" varied in practice from 0.25 to 1.00. However, "dummy" values were assigned to certain operational variables in order that these varia¬bles would have numerical expression. The following variables were described in this manner. Variable "Dummy" Value x3: Development/Pillaring 0, if pillar extraction was being done 1, if development mining was being done x4: Boxcut/Open Cut 0, if a box cut was being made 1, if an open cut was being made The variables under consideration are represented symbolically as follows: Y: Loading rate (tons per minuts): TONS/MIN x1: Ratio, width of cut/width of cutter: WDRATIO x2: Ratio, height of cut/diameter of cutter: HTRATIO x3: Development or pillaring: D/P

Jan 1, 1972

Design and test a high-production coal mining machine that generates less respirable dust. Background Current coal cutting systems generate excessive amounts of airborne respirable dust and fines during the mining process. Dust control technologies, including dust dilution by ventilation and suppression by water sprays, are not always able to reduce dust levels sufficiently. The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) has designed a cutting system that reduces respirable dust generated by the cutting action of the drum. This cutting system, based on geometric principles developed in the 1500's, makes use of a constant depth, linear cut to remove coal at deeper cut depths and at lower rotary speeds than a conventional rotary drum. A comparison of the linear and rotary cut paths is shown in figure 1. Approach A full-scale prototype of the linear cutting concept was valuated under laboratory conditions to determine its performance relative to standard rotary drums. Results of these evaluations show production of fewer fines, or more uniform product size, a significant reduction in the amount of airborne dust, and reduced torque and power requirements (figure 2). On the basis of these results, a contract effort was undertaken by McCracken and Associates of Bristol, TN, to design a linear cutting head for underground testing.

Jan 1, 1995

By J. P. Rider

Health surveillance efforts indicate that the development of lung disease and overexposure to respirable dust in underground coal mires continues to afflict mine worker. Results from the most recent round (1992 - 1996) of the Coal Worker's X-ray Surveillance Programs indicate that approximately 8% of the examined miners who had at least 25 years of mining experience were diagnosed with Coal Worker Pneumoconiosis (CWP) (category 1/0+). During the period between 1995-1999, mine operators and MSHA inspectors collected 9968 and 1365 dust samples respectively, from longwall designated occupation (DO) personnel. Analysis of these samples showed that 1970 (20%) of the mine operator samples and 25.8 (19%) of the MSHA samples5 exceeded the 2 mg/m3 dust standard. The continued development of CWP in coal mine workers and the magnitude of respirable dust over-exposures in longwall mining occupations illustrate the need for improved dust control technology on longwalls. Figure 1 illustrates the major longwall dust sources as determined in the early 1990's.4 This article describes the ongoing research to find ways to minimise shearer dust levels as a function of changes in dust control parameters, and research to determine the impact of high air velocities on shield dust entrainment.

By J. W. Paul

"The economic features of coal mining must take into account the drain on the man power. Study over a recent 5-year period reveals an average yearly loss of 2,125 underground men, of whom 1,182 are killed by falls of roof and coal, and according to recent data compiled by the Bureau of Mines it is estimated that 54,000 men sustain lost—time disabling injuries from the same cause.Under normal activity of the mines approximately 50 lives are taken by falls of roof during every 10 days the mines are operated, or 5 persons are killed per day, which, at a compensation charge of $5,000 each, amounts to $25,000 per day. Add to this the similar number killed by causes other than by falls of roof and we have $50,000 as an approximate daily fatality charge for each day the mines operate. On the basis of 200 working days per year, this amounts to the alarming figure of $10,000,000 annually. An investment at 5 per cent to yield this amount would require $200,000,000, which is equivalent to a capital investment of $0.40 per ton of coal, produced annually, on the basis of 500 million tons. These figures apply only to fatalities for which a fixed or stated amount is paid for compensation and do not include the compensation and hospitalization paid for the approximately 103,000 upon whom idleness is enforced by a lost-time disability injury. In one State having an annual production equal to approximately 30 per cent of the total bituminous production of the United States, the most recent data shows that for each fatality there are eight serious injuries causing 60 days or more lost time. The frequency rate of accidents for that State is less than the average for the United States, and so a conservative comparison may be made by using the figures of that State in estimating the total serious injuries, which gives 16,000 as losing 60 days or more. The average number of underground employees in the coal mines of the United States for the past 10 years has been approximately 570,000; the annual underground fatalities amount to approximately 2,000 and non-fatalities to 108,000, or a total of 110,000, which means that one out of every 5.17 employees ,or 19.3 per cent, receives an injury which results in either a fatality or a lost-time disability; this figure in a little over five years will reach a number equivalent to 100 per cent of all underground workmen. Against this is the record of many miners who have worked 25 years or more without a lost—time disability injury, indicating that coal mining is not necessarily productive of injury or death to workers.In the matter of falls of roof, it is found that 85 to 87 per cent of all fatalities occur at the working face, face of a room or entry, or in pillar work. It is at the working face that the greatest roof hazards are encountered, and when about 75 per cent of the underground employees spend approximately 90 per cent of their working hours at the face, it is logical that there is where injury is most likely to occur.Although the roof hazards may vary in different beds of coal, experience has proved that roof hazards can be successfully controlled in all coal mines, essentially regardless of the character of the roof if constant care and attention are given by the management and employees in applying the principle of safety. In almost every mining district some companies maintain an extremely low frequency rate of injury, whereas in the same district with essentially the same roof conditions the opposite is true.A study has recently been made of a number of reports upon fatalities in one district of one of the principal coal—producing States and it showed that 50 lives had been lost at 23 mines as the result of falls of roof or sides. These reports were made by the mine officials, safety engineers, and safety committees and an attempt was made to give both the cause and the person or factor responsible for the fatality. A summary of the items of responsibility is as follows:"

Feb 1, 1932

By S. E. Khalafalla

The ability of potentiometric, gas-sensing electrodes to reliably monitor free gaseous molecules in solution has been recently demonstrated. A gas such as sulfur dioxide from a dilute sample solution diffuses through a hydrophobic, gas-permeable membrane to an internal filling solution. The latter solution contains a sufficiently large excess of sodium bisulfite, the concentration of which can be considered constant regardless of the quantity of sulfur dioxide entering by diffusion. The electrode response is essentially due to the liberated hydrogen ions from the bisulfite-sulfur dioxide equilibrium. This Bureau of Mines report describes a new technique used to detect the formation, and to estimate the stability constant, of gas-molecule and gas-ion complexes in solution, as part of an effort to minimize the undesirable environmental impacts associated with mining and mineral processing. Although the unknown activity coefficients of the neutral and ionic species in the external solution complicate the quantitation of results, methods to circumvent these difficulties are presented. The technique is based on the isometric shift of the Nernst diagram of ion-selective electrodes to higher concentrations relative to the standard aqueous calibration curve. The method is applied to detect and estimate the formation constant of a sulfitocitrate complex, and agrees well with an independently determined stability constant of the disulfitomercu-rate complex.

Jan 1, 1978

By C. E. Hennig

On January 1, 1960 there were 310 petroleum refineries in the United States, with a crude-oil capacity of 9,901,424 barrels daily, according to the Bureau of Mines' annual survey. Compared with a year ago, this represents a net decrease of three in the number of refineries and an increase of 81,578, barrels per day in crude-oil throughput capacity. Continuing the trend to fewer units with greater individual throughput, the capacity of the average refinery in the United states increased during 1959 from 31,373 barrels per day to 31,740 barrels per day. Compared with the previous year, total crude-oil capacity of refineries on January 1, 1960 was lower in the Appalachian No. 1, Other Rocky Mountain, and Texas Gulf refinery districts. All other districts showed slight increases in capacity. At the beginning of 1960 the industry had under construction facilities that would increase the crude-oil capacity in the United States by 70,947 barrels per day. This was the smallest capacity increase under construction at the beginning of the year since 19460 Included in this construction of additional capacity were two new refineries, one in Michigan and another in Hawaii. In addition, the industry was constructing facilities to replace 50,250 barrels per day of existing crude-oil capacity.

Jan 1, 1960

This is an audience, I know, that shares my interest in a subject that is currently getting a lot of attention -the tendency of our Nation to draw increasingly on overseas supplies of certain mineral commodities, and proportionately less on domestic sources for these minerals. That we do obtain substantial quantities of some essential minerals from abroad is easy to demonstrate. That we will continue to do so in the foreseeable future is not in doubt. Uncertainty begins, however, when we try to interpret the significance of these facts. As with many phenomena, their meaning is open to a variety of interpretations.

Jan 1, 1980

By R. V. Ramani, C. B. Manula, A. Owili-Eger

Network analysis of mine ventilation systems is not new, having been traced back to 1854. A Committee Report (1970) has also reported the extensive work done in this respect in the United Kingdom, Japan, U.S.S.R., South Africa, United States, and other countries. Wang, et al (1970) developed a computer program which is an improvement over the earlier one developed by Wang et al (1967). The program has been recently modified and extended to include methane emission features by Owili-Eger (1973). This computer program incorporates all the novel features of the earlier programs. These include the capabilities of mesh selection, free splitting, internal or external fans, natural ventilation pressure and fixed quantity branches. The program is written in Fortran IV and, in effect, is an experimental mine in which many ideas can be tried out. The computer produces, besides the input data and certain computational data, the quantities and head losses in the branches, the head losses to be adjusted in the fixed quantity branches and the fan operating point. The last named program, hereafter to be referred to as the PSU/MVS, is presented in Appendix I. The application of this program is demonstrated in this manual through a series of selected examples. Application of the methane generator program is not included here as a detailed report on the subject is available elsewhere (Ramani et al, 1975).

Jan 1, 1975

By G. L. Oldright, Virgil Miller

"ACKN0WLEDGMENTSThe data given in this paper were collected at the Bunker Hill smelter through the courtesy of Stanley A. Easton, the vice-president and general manager, Frank M. Smith, the smelter director, and with the assistance and cooperation of A. F. Beasley, the smelter superintendent, and his staff members.THE BLAST FURNACE AND PLANTThe general lay-out of the recently built (1917) Bunker Hill plant has been given in the technical press in articles that were cited in Report of Investigations 3088. In addition it may be noted that the description of an ideal smelter given by Riddell 5 a year later fits the Bunker Hill smelter very well, with some changes, such as the location of the stack, made necessary by topography. For purposes of this article on the blast furnace it may suffice to state that the plant is one of the ""side hill location"" type. The various successively lower benches may roughly be considered as made for (1) the stack, (2) Cottrells and bag houses, (3) Dwight and Lloyd sintering machines with the equipment or bins for handling or mixing the feed and storing the finished product, sinter, and (4) the blast furnace feed floor with a slightly rising gradient to the bottom of the bins for sinter, feed, and take. The lowest bench (5) might be considered that of the blast furnace tapping floor at which or at appropriately slightly lower elevations are located the units for softening, refining, and treating precious metals, and for casting and loading lead. A very careful study of grades was made in order to be able to handle the products easily. All units were left with at least one end open to permit expansion of the plant, it desired, and each unit was separated from the other, evidently so that the operators on one level would be annoyed as little as posssible with the products made on another."

Apr 1, 1931

Lower the respirable dust exposure of longwall shearer operators by isolating and con-fining the dust cloud near the face. Approach Install conveyor belt screens at various locations on the body of the shearer to contain and hold the dust cloud toward the face side of the machine. This approach provides a cleaner air split in the walkway, over the shearer operators. How It Works On most longwall shearer sections, the dust exposure of the shearer operators is primarily attributable to the machine it-self. The dust cloud originates at the face, and the exposure of the operators depends largely on how quickly this dust spreads into the walkway. Conveyor belt screens placed on the gob side of the body of the machine can reduce the amount of dust which spreads out into the walk-way. In addition, belting may be installed over any open spaces between the shearer under-frame and the panline to prevent conveyor dust from boiling out into the operator's walkway.

Jan 1, 1981

By Gerrit V. R. Goodman, Charles D. Taylor, Edward D. Thimons

Future coal mining systems will be able to cut from crosscut to crosscut where advances could exceed 100 ft. However, limitations arise when ventilating such mining systems. In deep advance mining, there would be no workers at the face to advance ventilation tubing or curtain manually. Traditional methods also provide no means for maintaining face ventilation after the miner backs away from the face. U.S. Bureau of Mines research is studying means to provide effective ventilation at cut depths beyond the current limit of 40 ft. Several innovative ventilation schemes are currently being considered. One such method is the use of a jet fan to ventilate a deep cut. A jet fan is simply a freestanding fan using little or no ducting to direct the ventilation flow. Jet fan testing in a 90-ft entry revealed that higher exit velocities and greater penetration depth occurred when various configurations were used to confine and direct the air flow. Additional testing also indicated that 2,200 cfm of fresh air was delivered to the face 90 ft distant when a check curtain was used to limit entrainment around the fan. Without this curtain, this quantity dropped to only 1,000 cfm This testing indicated that a jet fan was capable of providing ventilation to a distant face area. It also highlighted potential problems, such as recirculation at the fan and reentrainment in the jet flow. Despite these potential problems, jet fans may be adequate for ventilating cuts exceeding 40 ft.

Jan 1, 1992

By H. A. Tucker

This Bureau of Mines investigation was conducted to determine the appropriate quantities of rare-earth methals (REM) in the form of silicides to add to an alloy steel for the purpose of increasing toughness and ductility. The work was conducted in a vacuum induction furnace with the rare-earth additions required to deoxidize and desulfurize a simulated basic oxygen furnace (BOF) vacuum-degassed steel initially containing 0.013 to 0.016 percent sulfur. The product proved to be as good or better than the best basic electric furnace steel of the same composition made by the steel industry. Twenty-three experimental heats of 5 Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel were made, cast into 50-1b ingots, and hot-worked in a press and a rolling mill to ½ inch plates which were then heat-treated to 130/150 ksi4 yield strength. Impact and tension tests showed that the addition of 0.025 to 0.100 percent, or ½ to 2 lb per ton, respectively, of rare-earth metals when compounded with silicon were appropriate for increasing toughness and ductility. These quantities resulted in retained cerium contents between 0.014 to 0.025 percent, and increased the Charpy V-notch energy absorption and the percent reduction of area significantly as compared with base heats at the same sulfur content levels. All the test heats, including those with additions of REH of as much as 4 lb/ton, had greater Charpy V-notch energy absorption values than the base composition could have developed at the starting sulfur range of 0.013-0.016 wt pct.

Jan 1, 1968

Lower the respirable dust exposure of longwall shearer operators by use of a modified head to tail cutting sequence. Approach Modify the cutting sequence of double-drum shearer operations cutting unidirectionally head to tail, so that the tailgate drum is used to mine the entire coal face except when cutting out at the head. This approach would place the primary dust generating source, the cutting action of the drum, on the return air side of both shearer operators. How It Works Currently, 75% of the double-drum shearers in operation employ a unidirectional cutting sequence. On half of these operations, the primary cut is taken as the shearer travels from the headgate to tailgate ends of the face, with roof support to be advanced on the intake air side of the shearer. Typically, the leading (tailgate) drum is taking a full cut during the head to tail pass and the trailing (headgate) drum is cutting bottom coal. In this mode of operation, the dust generated by the trailing (headgate) drum can spread out into the walkway, and increase the respirable dust exposure of both head and taildrum operators. As an alternative, if the trailing drum is "free wheeling" or cutting minimal coal during the head to tail cut, and bottom coal taken by the tailgate drum during the tail to head clean-up pass, both operators are able to work on the intake air side of the primary dust generating source (drum) except when cutting out at the head. This modified cutting sequence would save wear on the conveyor and help to eliminate overloads, as well as reduce the respirable dust exposure of both shearer operators. This modifcation is only applicable to long-wail operations currently cutting unidirectional head to tail, and to those operations where this unidirectional cut would not produce operating constraints.

Jan 1, 1981

Increase the safety of operators of front-end loaders by providing a means of monitoring the machine's stability. Approach Through a research contract, the Bureau of Mines developed a front-end loader stability indicator which provides the machine operator with a reliable, easily interpreted display assessing the stability of the machine. How It Works Statistics show that front-end loader accidents are the largest single category of machinery-related accidents in the surface mining industry. Many of the fatalities resulting from these accidents occur when front-end loaders rollover and either crush the operator who is trapped within the cab or strike the operator who is trying to jump to safety. Although rollover protective structures (ROPS) are required by law on front-end loaders to protect operators in the case of a rollover, these do not prevent the actual rollover from occurring. In fact, the operator has no way of evaluating the stability of the machine except by using personal judgment. The Bureau of Mines responded to this problem by developing a front-end loader stability indicator whose primary function is to Indicate to the operator when the machine is approaching an unstable situation which may trigger a rollover. The device bases Its interpretation on measurement of the normal loads on the machine's wheels. Strain gage instrumentation located on the machine is used to monitor the magnitude and change of forces acting normal to the front-end loader's wheels. These forces are direct indicators of the machine's center of gravity relative to its position on the ground. The strain gages are connected to electronic circuitry which amplifies and processes the signals. Stability or instability of the loader is relayed to the operator through a display of green, amber and red lights.

Jan 1, 1986

By J. F. McIlwain

The Bureau of Mines investigated fumes generated by selected welding materials used in mines in order to help determine their relative hazard potential. The initial phases of the study have been completed. A welding-fume generation and collection apparatus was designed, assembled, and calibrated. Five brands of coated, AWS-type E308-16 stainless steel electrodes were tested. Total fume generation rates of 0.39 to 0.51 g/min were measured. Quantitative chemical analyses were conducted for all of the principal firms constituents. Two analytical schemes were used to determine levels of the Cr6+ and Cr3+ species contained in the welding fumes; comparable results were obtained. The Cr6+ was found to be the most hazardous constituent, leading to a maximum allowable total fume exposure of 1 mg/m3. Fume generation rates and fume constituent analyses will be derived for other groups of welding electrodes using similar procedures.

Jan 1, 1983

By H. E. Powell

The selective recovery of nickel and zinc from a waste phosphate solution by solvent extraction was investigated by the Bureau of Mines as part of a broad program to recover valuable metals and compounds from industrial wastes, and to reduce the associated land and water pollution caused by dumping these wastes. The waste, which resulted from the phosphation of automboile bodies, yielded 99 percent of both the nickel and the zinc by extraction with dinonyl naphthalene sulfonic acid (DNSA) and di-2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid (EHPA), respectively. Dilute sulfuric acid was used to recover the metals and regenerate the solvents.

Jan 1, 1970