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By H. W. McQuaid

IT IS usually assumed that chemical specifications are sufficient for steel to be used for case carburizing, and if the steel analyzes within the ordinary limits specified for steel for this purpose, no difficulty traceable to the steel used should be encountered in obtaining satisfactory results in the case carburizing and hardening. Much work has been done to determine the effect of various alloying elements on the rate of carbon penetration, etc. but, to our knowledge, little if anything has been published in regard to the effect of the quality of the steel on the final results in the hardening of case-carburized steel parts. The writers believe that the structure of the case both before and after quenching is greatly affected by the actual condition of the steel itself as made, and that for good results in the case-carburizing and hardening departments, the steel should be of the best possible quality as regards non-metallic impurities. It is the purpose of this paper to prove that the presence of excess dissolved oxides in the steel, as made in the melting furnace, affects permanently the results obtained in carburizing and hardening and that it is possible that the presence of dissolved oxide can result in total unfitness of low-carbon steel for, case hardening purposes. When races and rolls for roller bearings are made from a low-carbon steel, case carburized and hardened, it is of primary importance that the results of this treatment be of the highest quality. It is necessary, therefore, that in the case-carburizing work each detail be rigorously checked to avoid any defects which would cause the loss of much time and material. The case carburizing with which this paper deals was done in under-fired oil furnaces. The temperature of each furnace is controlled by means of a platinum platinum-rhodium thermocouple, in connection with a potentiometer indicator and potentiometer recorder. The temperature of each furnace is registered every 15 min. by an operator, who is continually checked by the automatic recorders.

Jan 2, 1922

By J. H. Nead, T. S. Washburn

The grades of commercial steel produced in large quantities can be divided into two general types from the standpoint of ingot structure— killed and rimmed. Killed steel covers a wide variety with carbon contents throughout the range of the steel portion of the iron-carbon diagram, and is the kind usually used in the production of alloy steels. Rimmed steel is normally associated with carbon ranges under 0.30 per cent, and is not yet used to a large extent in alloy practice, except for copper-bearing steels. The fundamental differences in the ingots made from these two types of steel can be seen most easily in Figs. 1 to 7. In the rimmed ingot shown in Figs. 5 to 7 there are two lines of blowholes approximately parallel to the sides and coming together at the top and at the bottom of the ingot. In the killed ingots shown in Figs. 1 to 4 these blowholes arc not present. Also, the rimmed ingot has no well defined pipe, as compared to the deep pipe on the killed ingots, and there are numerous primary blowholes in the lower portion of the rimmed ingot perpendicular to the surface and close to it, while on the killed ingot there are no blowholes of this type in the ingot shown in Fig. 1 and very small ones close to the surface in the lower part of the ingot shown in Figs. 2 to 4. With respect to the presence of pipe and the primary blowholes, the structure may vary considerably in both rimmed and killed ingots, therefore these cannot be considered as fundamental structural characteristics differentiating the two types of steel. The primary blowholes in rimmed ingots may be much less pronounced than those in the ingot shown in Figs. 5 to 7—as, for example, in "ingot iron," which is entirely free from them. An example of a cross section of an ingot-iron ingot is shown on page 16 of "Research and Methods of Analysis of Iron and Steel," published by the American Rolling Mill Co. (1920). A certain amount of pipe may also occur in rimmed ingots, though it is normally porous and not as well defined [or deep as in the killed ingot of Fig. 1. In killed ingots, primary blowholes may occur near the surface, as in Figs. 2 to 4, and

Jan 1, 1937

By R. M. Daelen

Mechanical science is severely tested by the demands of the iron manufacture for the varied apparatus needed to transport and to treat raw materials and products. Water has long been a favorite means of transmitting pressure for such purposes, because of its own incompressibility. Further advances in its use are the more to be expected, since mechanical improvements have steadily tended to overcome the difficulties formerly encountered in the employment of great hydraulic pressures. So long as the pressure is not higher than that which requires for plungers, etc., only ordinary stuffing-boxes, with hemp or other similar packing, the necessary arrangements for the production and transmission of the water-pressure without leakage are very simple. But when this limit (which is, for most purposes, 50 kilos to the square centimeter) is exceeded, new conditions of construction arise, which are met in various ways, and which justify a primary division of hydraulic presses into low-pressure and high-pressure respectively. The former are used in lifting and moving weights, and employ pressures as high (in extreme cases) as 100 kilos per square centimeter; but at this point the friction between piston and hemp-packing is so great that the use of cup-leathers is already preferable. Beyond 100 kilos it becomes a necessity. The range of practicable tight packing which follows is considerable, extending to about 1000 kilos; but "high pressure" in practice is from 100 to 600 kilos, and it is to this that the present paper applies. General Classes and Types. Hydraulic transmission at high pressure usually claims consideration in case the solid mechanism, such as levers, cams, screws, and gear-wheels, would have to be too large, would involve too much friction, or could not be suitably adapted to the speed-requirements of the working-tools. Since steam is mostly the primary carrier of

Jan 1, 1893

By K. S. Lane

The problem of stability of slopes in reservoirs is one of real interest in civil engineering. The problem is whether the valley walls will remain stable or whether they are likely to slide as conditions are changed by storage of water in the reservoir. If major slides are indicated, as on the walls of relatively steep canyons, one must estimate whether they will be so located and of sufficient size as to interfere with operation of the reservoir-as by blocking the outlets, or by displacing sufficient water to over-top the dam in a huge wave. Some cases involve problems in soil mechanics for slides in earth or weaker rock; other locations need the assistance of rock mechanics for slides in harder rock. While this is not a new problem, attention has recently been focused on its importance by the hugh landslide into the Vaiont reservoir in 1963, which claimed the lives of over 2000 people and forced abandonment of the dam and powerhouse. VAIONT RESERVOIR SLIDE Fig. 1 shows Vaiont Dam in Italy which is a double curvature arch, 875 ft high, located on a tributary of the Piave River, north and west of Venice. When completed in 1960 it was the highest arch dam in the world. In 1960 a sizable landslide (some 700,000 cu yd) occurred on the left abutment a short distance above the dam. Following this, the reservoir was held down for construction of a by-pass tunnel through the right valley wall to insure connection with the upper end of the reservoir in event of further slides. In October 1963 a giant landslide occurred on the left valley wall, over a width of some 14 miles (see Fig. 2). Over 300 million cu yd slid into the reservoir, displacing the water and forming a hige wave 700 ft above the top of the dam as it hit the opposite, or right, wall of the valley. The wave then passed some 500 ft over top of the dam, followed down the tortuous winding canyon and debouched into the

Jan 1, 1967

By W. A. Backofen, A. T. English

The kinetics of re crystallization were determined metallographically for a 3-1/4 pcl Si-Fe rapidly compressed at temperatures of 710° to 911°C, and held for various times at the working temperature. As in re crystallization following cold wwk, the time for re crystallization was reduced by increased temperature and strain. Nucleation occurred chiefly at grain edges, although other pre-existing interfaces, notably inclusions, also served as nucleation sites. The importance of intragranular nucleation to grain refinement in hot working is pointed out, together with some possible techniques by which nucleation might be induced within the grains. The observed isothermal growth rates are quite accurately described by the equation G = 4 x 10-'/t (cm per sec), independent of temperature and strain at all but the shortest times. Changes in G during recrystalliza-tion can exceed two orders of magnitude. It is argued that release of stored energy associated with lattice defects cannot adequately explain the time dependence. A suggested alternative involves processes of solute segregation and desegregation in the unrecrystallized matrix and at the moving boundary, respectively. EFFORTS to improve hot-working practice are hampered by an incomplete understanding of the fundamental metallurgy involved. Research directed at establishing the required basic foundation falls into two categories, the first concerned with measurement of mechanical properties under the conditions of high temperature and strain rate which characterize such processing, the second focused on structure and its relation to the deformation conditions. Rossard,' Rossard and Blain,2 and Hardwick and Tegart have conducted many high-speed, high-temperature torsion tests on various metals. One of their objectives was interpretation of stress-strain curves in terms of the structures of specimens rapidly quenched following interruption of twisting. They showed that appreciable hardening occurred in the early part of the test, and that this hardening reflected the concurrent development of an increasingly dense substructure within the grains. The detailed nature of this substructure was observed to depend on the ease of polygonization which, at least in fcc metals, varies with the stacking-fault energy.= By holding specimens after interruption but before quenching, the nucleation and growth of new grains could also be studied. Some success has been realized in relating the microstructure of hot-rolled steel to its temperature:strain rate:strain history with such testing.' The same general observations have been made by others investigating rolling4f5 and drop-hammer forging.~-~ Incident to these experiments, some efforts were made to determine the kinetics of re-crystallization as well as the velocity of the migrating boundaries. The results have been largely qualitative, owing to difficulties of interpreting hardness measurements5 and microstructures. The work described here was undertaken to obtain more quantitative information from tests on a material having suitable metallographic properties, and, in this way, to provide further insight into the fundamentals of this practically most important kind of deformation processing. I) MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Materials. Electrolytic etching of a Si-Fe alloy reveals dislocations and substructure in unrecrystallized grains.8'9 This unique characteristic makes possible a precise determination of the extent of recrystallization. For that reason, it was the material selected for all experiments in the present work. The two particular alloys that were used are identified in Table I. A major difference between "A" and "B" is the number of inclusions, as noted in the table. Most of the experiments were made with material "A". It was received as hot-rolled plate 1 in. thick, sawed to 2-in. widths, hot-forged at 1200°C to 5/8-in. rounds, and finally annealed in a mechanical vacuum at 1000°C for 24 hr. The result was substructure-free grains of mean diameter 0.05 cm.*

Jan 1, 1964

By S. A. Braley

DRAINAGE water from coal mines is probably the most serious water pollution problem today, varying in importance according to location of the mines and geological structure. Drainage may be either acid or alkaline in character. Acid discharge, the most severely detrimental to a stream, is caused by natural oxidation of the sulfuritic material (FeS2) in the strata associated with the coal seam. Since the acid is the result of a natural reaction the acid water differs because it does not cease with abandonment of the mining operations. There is no known economical method of neutralizing acid mine water or any practical method to prevent oxidation of exposed pyrite. Since production of acid from a mine does not stop when mining stops, the total quantity produced depends entirely upon the excavated areas. The increasing volume of acid water in manv mines has greatly increased operating costs. Pumping is expensive and acid mine waters are destructive of all equipment, especially metals in pumps and piping, and necessitate the use of corrosion-resistant materials. Discharge of the acid mine drainage into streams neutralizes their normal alkalinity, causes them to become acid, and produces an environment unfavorable for aquatic life and unsuited for industrial or domestic use without costly treatment. Mine drainages vary in percentage composition over wide limits, although the usual dissolved substances are ferrous and ferric iron, aluminum, calcium and magnesium sulfates, and lesser amounts of sodium, potassium and manganese sulfates and chlorides. Some alkaline discharges may contain heavy concentrations of iron as iron bicarbonate. These waters may produce iron hydroxide deposits in the receiving stream but do not cause it to become acid. In the extensive literature on acid mine water there appears to be a great deal of confusion about the importance of various components and the methods for their determination. In many instances faulty conclusions have been drawn from use of unsuitable methods of analysis. It is desirable that the factors and terms used in evaluation of analyses of mine waters should be so clearly defined that any interested person could properly appraise any analytical report. Some analysts report complete chemical analyses of mine waters and neglect to record drainage volumes. Others report only a minimum of analytical data after taking no precautions to preserve the original composition of the water during the time elapsing between collection and analysis. Some use methods of analysis intended for so-called pure waters of the potable and boiler water classes. These methods are not applicable to highly buffered waters such as mine water. Probably the most common criteria for evaluation are pH, free acidity, or acidity or alkalinity to methyl orange or methyl red, total acidity or acidity to hot phenol-phthalein, and the sulfate content. If these determinations are made on carelessly collected samples after a few days to weeks standing in warm rooms, they do not in any way represent the character of the water flowing from the mines. It is hoped that a brief discussion of the fundamental value of some of these factors may lead to a bettqr understanding of the need for more careful evaluation of mine water discharges. The term pH is one used by chemists to express relative acidity or alkalinity in terms of concentration of effective hydrogen ion in a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration or activity in equivalents per liter. pH = logarithm A neutral solution, which is one containing the same number of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, has a pH of 7. As the hydrogen ions increase and the solution becomes more acid, the pH decreases toward zero; and as the hydroxyl ions increase and the solution becomes more alkaline, the pH approaches 14. When dissolved in water to a dilute solution acids like sulfuric and hydrochloric, commonly known as strong acids, ionize completely, and the pH or hydrogen ion concentration varies with molar concentration of the dissolved acid. However, in high concentrations of such acids, the pH or hydrogen ion concentration is less than the acid concentration because the acid does not completely ionize. In only very dilute solutions does the pH represent the total amount of acid that can be neutralized by an alkali. All ionization reactions are equilibrium reactions. If other chemicals are added to the solution of an acid and the added chemical produces an ion that is the same as one of the ions of the acid, the degree of ionization of the acid is altered and the pH changes to some value that represents the active hydrogen ion of the new solution. Thus if iron sulfate is added to a solution of sulfuric acid the pH increases, since the common sulfate ion suppresses the degree of ionization of the sulfuric acid and decreases the effective hydrogen ion. However, the total acidity of the solution is increased. There are two salts composed of iron and sulfate— ferrous and ferric sulfate. In these salts there is no hydrogen ion that can ionize to give an acid solution, but when they are dissolved in water, the pH is less than 7 and the solution becomes acid. This is caused by a reaction known as hydrolysis and is represented by the equations FeSO4 + 2H2O ? Fe(OH)2 + 2H + SO,: or Fe,(SO,)3 + 6H2O ? 2Fe(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3504 A solution with a total acidity of 5000 ppm according to the first equation will have a pH of 4.40 but one with an acidity of 75 ppm, according to the sec-

Jan 1, 1958

By J. O. Lewis

Oil wells usually reach their maximum daily output shortly after they are completed. From that time they decline in-production, the rapidity of decline depending on the output of the wells and on other' factors governing their productivity. The production curve of a well shows the mount of oil produced per unit of time for several consecutive periods; if the conditions affecting the rate of production are not changed by outside influences, the curve will be fairly regular, and, if projected, mill furnish useful knowledge as to the future production of the well. By the aid of this knowledge the value of a property may he judged, and proper depletion and depreciation charges may be made on the books of the

Jan 2, 1918

For the seventh consecutive year, the value of nonfuel mineral raw ma¬terials produced in the US set a new record, reaching almost $20 billion-up 12.7% from the previous year, according to the US Bureau of Mines. The Bureau reported that this mineral production was the basis for about $200 billion worth of processed materials of mineral origin.

Jan 5, 1979

By D. Harker, M. J. Murphy

The mechanism by which age-hardening takes .place is still not completely understood. The principal theories range from the extreme of "precipitaiion-hardening" to that of "order-hardening," with many intermediate gradations. In the hope of obtaining new data on which to base a choice among the many theories, the authors have made electron micrographs of formvar replicas taken from metallic specimens at various stages of age-hardening. The results so obtained on an alloy of 2 per cent beryllium in copper and one of 20 per cent molybdenum in iron will be described in the following pages, as well as the technique used in preparing the replicas. Preparation of Formvae. Replicas of Metallic Specimens This section is concerned with the techniques that have roved successful in preparing formvar replicas for studying the microstructure of metals with the electron microscope. Because of its simplicity and accuracy, the formvar replica1 method developed in the General Electric Research Laboratory has been used exclusively, since it is much simpler than the silica replica method of Heidenreich and Peck2 and produces as good results. The formvar method to be described requires a technique acquired only by practice, and no foolproof set of rules can be given. it is a rapid method and a replica can be obtained in less than five minutes under favorable conditions. This does not mean that perfect replicas can be produced every five minutes, but rather that one can well afford to take several strippings* in order to produce a replica of high quality. The metallographic technique required for replica work—very fine polishing and etching with very dilute solutions—is described here. It can be said, in general, that almost any surface that has been carefully prepared for a photomicrograph at 1000 or more diameters can be used to obtain a replica for the electron microscope. Preparation of Metallographic Specimens The preparation of the metallographic specimens is somewhat more exacting than that usually given to samples to be used for inspection under the light microscope. After much experimentation, it was concluded that the best method consists in polishing the metal through to the coarse cloth, then etching and repolishing on final cloth until the layer of distorted metal is removed. After this procedure has been completed, a dilute etch—to approximately the depth necessary for a micrograph at 1000 diameters—usually produces a sur-

Jan 1, 1945

By Thomas S. Lovering

Hot springs, geysers, steam-emanating fumaroles- these creatures of nature were until recently little more than geological curiosities, but today they are exciting the interest of engineers around the world for it has been shown that such hyperthermal areas can be profitably harnessed by man to provide heat and power for his communities. Although water from hot springs was used centuries ago to heat some Korean dwellings, is being used today by one-third of Iceland's population for similar purposes, and is finding industrial applications in New Zealand and elsewhere, the most dramatic use of geothermal energy has been its conversion into electricity. The largest installation at the present time is that at Larderello, Italy, where the Count of Larderello began to experiment in the production of electricity from geothermal steam in 1904. Eight years later after a quarrel with the local power company, the Count installed his first steam turbine, a unit of 250 kw capacity.

Jan 9, 1965

By G. D. Marshall, D. K. Sarin, V. E. Hampton

Ground support at the Thompson Mine emphasizes scaling, rock bolting and wire mesh screening on the backs and walls of all underground stoping and development areas and also full column grouted cable bolting in the bulk mining areas. This paper describes the equipment for the point anchored rock bolts as well as the full column cable bolts. Modifications in design and testing of all components and procedures has ensured a safe and efficient method of ground support for the mining conditions existing at the Thompson Mine.

Jan 1, 1983

By J. Wesley Pullman

It is stated by Dr. Tuttle in a paper read before the New Jersey Historical Society, that the celebrated Dickerson mine at Succasunna, Morris Co., N. J., yielded ore, about as early as 1710, for use at the Whippany forge, on Rockaway River, between Rockaway and Boonton. The ore was, for some time, free to all who chose to dig it. The tract embracing the Dickerson mine mas taken up, on account of its minerals, in 1713 or 1714, by John Reading, who sold it in 1716 to Joseph Kirkbride. John Jackson built a forge in 1722 on the Rockaway River a mile west of Dover. The ore here worked was probably chiefly from the Dickerson mine, but a portion may have been Hibernia. Hon. E. D. Halsey, of Rockaway, K. J., writes me: It is quite possible that the ore was at first taken from the outcrop of Hibernia by anybody who wanted it. The property first had an owner, May

Jan 1, 1886

By Arne F. Westgren

X-ray analysis and single-crystal study have been utilized in recent years as a new means of following constitutional changes in alloys. If such transformations can be suppressed by rapid cooling, they can be followed at room temperature in a particularly convenient manner. In the following we shall consider changes in solubility and polymorphic transformations with particular reference to phenomena of the age-hardening type. Finally a thermodynamic viewpoint is developed for examining such transformations. Changes in Solubility 1. Determinations of solubility limits in the solid state which show decreasing solubility with falling temperature are made as follows: A series of alloys extending into the heterogeneous region is prepared and quenched fromas high a temperature as possible, whereupon their lattice parameters are determined. Then one or more alloys are quenched from temperatures at which they are heterogeneous and their lattice parameters likwwise determined. For the purpose of determining the parameter the apparatus shown in Fig. 1 has been very useful for it produces sharp films in a short time which can be accurately read. High-order reflections (interferences) from the object are recorded on a film which is placed exactly perpendicular to the X-ray beam. The specimen usually has the shape of a small round bar.l Fig. 2 shows a selection of such exposures of silver-rich Cu-Ag alloys, and Fig. 3 gives the measurements made from these films. Fig. 4 gives the solubility curve which results.2 This curve is shifted to lower concentrations than the curve that is obtained from metallographic or physical methods. The X-ray method unquestionably gives more reliable data

Jan 1, 1931

By J. L. Wyatt

THE smelting of ilmenite to produce a slag rich in titanium, with pig-iron as a byproduct, introduces new concepts in electric smelting metallurgy. Titanium slags are characterized by low electrical resistance, thereby requiring a different type of electric furnace operation, and power supply sources substantially different from those encountered in normal steel melting and siliceous ore smelting furnaces. This paper describes special apparatus for determining specific electrical resistivity of titanium slags, and reports the values obtained on slags encountered in the process of smelting ilmenite ores. In an induction furnace under conditions approximating normal furnacing operation, 25 general heats and 6 special standardization and comparison heats were run. Results indicate relatively low resistivity. Resistivity depends primarily on slag composition, and, to a lesser degree, on temperature. During the summer of 1947 a cooperative project between the National Lead Co. and the Bureau of Mines was conducted at Boulder City, Nevada, in the Electrometallurgical Laboratories of the Bureau. The project involved smelting of ilmenite ores in electric furnaces, and has been reported in detail.' The author participated as a member of the staff of the National Lead Co. during the entire campaign. One outstanding characteristic of the titaniferous slags, their apparently excellent and variable electrical conductivity, was considered sufficiently important to warrant further study. Although little electric smelting of iron ores has been done in the United States, a certain amount of information is available for comparative purposes. Personal experience in smelting siliceous iron ores in electric furnaces furnished further information for comparison. In general, silicate slags are relatively poor conductors of electricity. Current flow during smelting operations may be maintained through a floating layer of coke on top of the slag bath, or through a bath of molten iron, beneath the slag. Silicate slags are not sufficiently conductive to furnish a path for current passage when normal furnace voltages are used. Experimental smelting of a silicate iron ore was undertaken for comparative purposes. A fluid melt was not obtained until the FeO content was reduced to 15 pct. The resistivity increased as the FeO content decreased, FeO compounds being the most conductive of the various oxides in such a normal slag system. The converse appears to be true in slags containing large percentages of TiO2. It has been found that titanium slags become molten with FeO percentages in excess of 30 pct, and that the conductivity becomes generally better as the FeO con-tent of the slag diminishes. This phenomenon was demonstrated in the furnacing operations at Boulder City. During the initial smelting period furnace electrodes could be held immersed several inches in the slag, with tap selectors set for a no-load voltage of 70 v. As the FeO content decreased, the furnace electrodes would "walk up," until at one point in the process the tips would break the surface and arc on top of the slag. This was undesirable since direct arcing caused losses of important flux additions. The slag compositions under study at that time were such that losses due to surface arcing sometimes caused viscous slags to be formed. Forcing the electrodes into the slag bath by manual control to prevent surface arcing resulted in excessive power input and lack of control. Suitable low voltages were not available. Measurement of the electrical resistivity of titanium slags at various operating temperatures and slag compositions was undertaken. It was believed that this information would be of use in the design of electric furnaces suitable for smelting ilmenite, with voltages, electrode sizes, and electrode spacing adapted specifically to titanium slags.

Jan 1, 1951

By Paul D. Merica, R. G. Waltenberg

Although nickel was discovered and isolated as early as 1750 and its valuable properties recognized, many years passed before it was used commercially for wire, sheet, rods, etc., in the pure form. This was due partly to its high cost at that time and partly to the fact that it was not possible to refine and cast nickel into ingots sufficiently malleable to be amenable to the usual forging, rolling, or drawing processes. So remarkable was this fact, and so different from the experience at that time with metals such as copper and iron, that it has left its impress on the nomenclature within the nickel industry. To this day, furnace-cast nickel produced in such a manner as to be suitable for rolling and forging is called malleable nickel to distinguish it from the ordinary pig and shot nickel of commerce. In 1878, the firm of Jos. Wharton, of Philadelphia (which later became The American Nickel Works, a constituent of The International Nickel Co.) exhibited at the Paris Exhibition specimens of rolled pure nickel strip and of drawn nickel wire. About this time, there was considerable activity in the study of the refining of nickel and several methods were described, some of which were patented, for the production of furnace-cast malleable nickel including the use of manganese (Boed-dicker,1 Selve and Lotter2), the use of potassium permanganate (Berns-dorfer Metallwarenfabrik3) and the use of phosphorus (Garnier4). By far the most efficient method was discovered by Th. Fleitmann in 1879;5 it consisted in adding to the molten nickel, just before pouring the castings, from 0.05 to 0.125 per cent. of metallic magnesium. This soon became the recognized final malleableizing treatment for furnace-cast nickel.

Jan 1, 1925

By W. E. D. Jr. Stokes

THE application of aviation to mining and petroleum operations, on the basis of economy and attainment, has become a demonstrated fact. According to Dominion Government records, 30. Canadian companies engaged in air transportation with northland mining camps, carried 13,000 tons of freight in 1935, and in 1936 carried 16,000 tons. In addition, many mining companies used planes to transport prospectors with canoes, outboard motors, gasoline drums and supplies to remote locations, and one company maintained a plane to take radium-bearing ore from its mine on Great Bear Lake nearly 1000 miles south to the rail-way at Waterways, Alberta. Heavy pieces of mining machinery weighing 2 tons are being carried by Ford trimotor planes over the Andes, at an altitude of not less than 15,000 feet. At Bulolo, New Guinea, 17,500 tons of disassembled gold-dredging equipment has been flown over inaccessible terrain, while supplies and building materials for a, community of 1000 whites have been transported by airplane. A 31..4-ton shaft was carried on one notable trip, while at another time an automobile, 2 tons of rice and a large safe went over the mountains in one plane. Fig. 1 shows an electric generator that was carried by plane to Bulolo. Many large American oil companies operated fleets of planes during 19:36, ranging from fast, luxurious air liners for executives to elaborate geological prospecting units, ambulance planes, freight carriers and pipe-line repair crews. According to the U. S. Geological Survey, commercial firms photo-graphed 16,291 square miles during 1935, while the Government compiled from aerial photographs by the Geological Survey in the United States 85,544 square miles. It was found that information could be determined in a fraction of the time required by surface methods.

Jan 1, 1937

By W. D. Lowry

As most of the industrial activity of Oregon is centered in the Portland area, the foundries there consume the bulk of the foundry sand produced in Oregon. Although a number of the larger towns scattered throughout the state have gray-iron foundries, the sand used by most of them is of local origin. The yearly consumption of foundry sand of all types for the past few war years in Oregon is estimated to have been approximately 40,000 tons valued at about $285,000, of which an estimated 18,000 tons was shipped in from the Ottawa, Ill., district for use largely by the steel foundries. Until 1945 much of the silica sand consumed by the steel foundries in the Pacific Northwest, approximately 50,000 tons in 1944, came from Ottawa, Ill. and surrounding regions. Although some silica sand was shipped in from Belgium in the past, none is known to have been imported in recent years. Early in 1945, a very promising high-grade silica sand being produced near Eugene, Oregon, was introduced, and all but two of the Portland steel foundries are using this new sand. Until a few years ago, the search for good local (Oregon) foundry sands was carried on largely by the foundry supply houses. Recently the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries has investigated a number of deposits and has carried on and fostered research on the most bromising deposit near Eugene, about 120 miles south of Portland. High-grade silica foundry sand from this deposit is now being marketed in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The Eugene sand is one of the very few outstanding western steel-foundry sands. Field investigations by the Oregon Department show that there are relatively few deposits of sand in Oregon suitable for foundry use. A knowledge of the geology of the state makes this readily understandable. The only major primary sources of the quartz present in sandstones in Oregon are the intrusive masses of granite, granodiorite, and quartz diorite of late Jurassic or early Cretaceous age found in the Siskiyou Mountains of southwestern Oregon, a part of the old Klamath Mountain highland, and in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Transportation militates against the development of any possible deposits of foundry sand found east of the Cascade Mountains in central and eastern Oregon because few railroads traverse that area. East of the Cascades, which separate western from eastern Oregon, many of the older sediments of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age have either been metamorphosed or contain much volcanic eruptive material, and even if some of the Mesozoic sediments are highly quartzose in places, they are in relatively inaccessible areas. All the Tertiary sediments there are of continental origin and contain much ash and other volcanic debris, for there was great volcanic activity during much of that period. In western Oregon much the same is true of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks

Jan 1, 1948

By W. D. Lowry

As most of the industrial activity of Oregon is centered in the Portland area, the foundries there consume the bulk of the foundry sand produced in Oregon. Although a number of the larger towns scattered throughout the state have gray-iron foundries, the sand used by most of them is of local origin. The yearly consumption of foundry sand of all types for the past few war years in Oregon is estimated to have been approximately 40,000 tons valued at about $285,000, of which an estimated 18,000 tons was shipped in from the Ottawa, Ill., district for use largely by the steel foundries. Until 1945 much of the silica sand consumed by the steel foundries in the Pacific Northwest, approximately 50,000 tons in 1944, came from Ottawa, Ill. and surrounding regions. Although some silica sand was shipped in from Belgium in the past, none is known to have been imported in recent years. Early in 1945, a very promising high-grade silica sand being produced near Eugene, Oregon, was introduced, and all but two of the Portland steel foundries are using this new sand. Until a few years ago, the search for good local (Oregon) foundry sands was carried on largely by the foundry supply houses. Recently the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries has investigated a number of deposits and has carried on and fostered research on the most bromising deposit near Eugene, about 120 miles south of Portland. High-grade silica foundry sand from this deposit is now being marketed in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The Eugene sand is one of the very few outstanding western steel-foundry sands. Field investigations by the Oregon Department show that there are relatively few deposits of sand in Oregon suitable for foundry use. A knowledge of the geology of the state makes this readily understandable. The only major primary sources of the quartz present in sandstones in Oregon are the intrusive masses of granite, granodiorite, and quartz diorite of late Jurassic or early Cretaceous age found in the Siskiyou Mountains of southwestern Oregon, a part of the old Klamath Mountain highland, and in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Transportation militates against the development of any possible deposits of foundry sand found east of the Cascade Mountains in central and eastern Oregon because few railroads traverse that area. East of the Cascades, which separate western from eastern Oregon, many of the older sediments of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age have either been metamorphosed or contain much volcanic eruptive material, and even if some of the Mesozoic sediments are highly quartzose in places, they are in relatively inaccessible areas. All the Tertiary sediments there are of continental origin and contain much ash and other volcanic debris, for there was great volcanic activity during much of that period. In western Oregon much the same is true of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks

Jan 1, 1948

MINING ENGINEERING presents the annual membership report of the Society of Mining Engineers; see page 147.

Jan 7, 1964

THE following statement is contained in an article entitled "Mortgaging the Future." by Walter C. Teagle, president of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jer-sey, appearing in the current issue of the Lamp, the official organ of the Standard Oil Co.: "During the last eight months the domestic daily production. of crude oil has risen 300,000 bbl.. which means that no less a volume than 2,500,000 bbl. now are coming to market each day. . . . Every twenty-four hours 250,000 bbl. more than the consumer required are being added to our surplus oil storage. The temporary advantage of cheap petroleum products and the availability of fuel .oil, for a widespread use as a substitute for coal are not being weighed against the time when scarcity may follow on the heels of plenty and the public of tomor-row may have to pay for today's excesses. The over-production of crude and its consequences constitute a problem of national import which far outweighs the temporary advantages either to a part of the industry or to sections of the public.

Jan 8, 1927