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RUSSIA was the United States Number One source of manganese ore in 1948 when 34 pet of imports were received from that source, stated Norwood B. Melcher, assistant chief, ferrous metals and alloys branch, Bureau of Mines. In 1949, this country received only 20 pet of 1948 shipments from Russia, and only token amounts are now being received. Aggressive programming by industry and government resulted in prompt increases in shipments from major, producing sources; India, Gold Coast, and the Union of South Africa all increased exports to fill the vacuum left by Russia and provided an excess adequate to increase total imports approximately 290,000 short tons in 1949. Again in 1950, and with, even less ore from Russia, imports increased another 290,000 short tons. Since the shift from Russia as a source of manganese, the United States has received in total about 85 pet of its imports from India, Union of South Africa, Gold Coast, and Brazil in that order of importance. Producers of both home consumed and merchant ferromanganese have been able to adjust downward the manganese content of the home-consumed product and so obtain partial relief. Millions of tons of steel were produced in 1951 with a relatively low grade ferromanganese. This adjustment has been made without decreasing the quality of the steel, although with some increase in cost through introduction of new problems, including increased hand- . ding of material and additional removal of carbon. Forced into a pattern of price and grade structure such as exists today, the producer of ferromanganese must adopt one of three possible courses as a short-range program: 1-He may continue to deplete his stocks by producing standard (78 pet) ferromanganese and hope that the future will bring some form of relief; 2-he may attempt to produce 78 pet ferromanganese by paying higher prices for premium ores; or 3-he may drop the grade of ferromanganese and stretch stocks and future supplies of ore as far as possible. The present rundown condition of Indian railroads is attributed to the fact that the service has had no opportunity to recuperate since the beginning of World War II, while the demand for the movement of commodities has probably increased. The Union of South Africa has expanded its exports to the United States greatly since 1948, but, the showing of that country in 1951 was disappointing. Efforts have been made for some time by firms in the United States, at the urging of the manganese miners in the Union, to prevail on the railroad authority to grant and make available larger allocations of cars for manganese ore movement. As a whole, such efforts have been unsuccessful. Although the allocation of rail shipping has been the obvious factor in the decreased movement of ore, many other less determinate factors appear to be involved. Brazil, long an important supplier of manganese to the United States, has important manganese deposits in three areas, all of which are significant to this country. The Gold Coast is an important source of supply. Its metallurgical ore is particularly of significance because of its unusually high grade which permits considerable latitude in blending with the lower grade materials of South Africa and India. The Belgian Congo should have an output of 100,000 tons or more annually beginning this year. R. S. Dean presented two papers. One with K. M. Leute on hydrometallurgical methods for recovery of manganese from domestic ores and one as sole author on the so-called carbamate or Dean process. The two papers tied into each other. In the first mentioned he reviewed the various processes applicable to oxidized, and nonoxidized and reduced ores. The advantages of each .were pointed out. So far the only process tried on a substantial scale on oxidized ores was the SO2 process used at Las Vegas, Nev., on Three Kids ore during World War II. Many problems were encountered. Some of them were whipped while some of those remaining perhaps would have been whipped had time permitted. Since then work has been done elsewhere to avoid the formation of the troublesome thionates encountered at the Three Kids plant. Dean discussed the thionate and NO, processes as applied to oxidized ores. The only commercially used process on reduced ores is that of making electrolytic manganese. Among others that have been considered are the nitric acid process, the Bradley-Fitch ammonium sulphate process, and Dean's ammonium carbamate process. Dean's thesis was that extremely large tonnages of so-called low grade manganese ores are available, and that these should not be depleted in attempting to simulate a foreign metallurgical grade ore. He pointed out that the grade of the domestic manganese ores would be considered high if the same grade were found in copper ores. The selling price of electrolytic manganese and electrolytic copper are roughly the same. In addition to electrolytic manganese, he believes that domestic ores should be used to make exceptionally high grade products. These might be battery grade oxide or substantially pure oxide sinter, which might be used for high manganese alloys or for upgrading metallurgical grade manganese to produce a high manganese ferroalloy. The carbamate process is based on the fact that manganous oxide is readily soluble in concentrated ammonia solutions containing ammonium salts. In solutions of sufficiently high concentration the manganese exists as an anion. Lixiviants of ammonia and ammonium carbonate permit extraction of the manganese from reduced ores and the manganese can be recovered as carbonate by heating or by driving off ammonia. R. V. Lundquist presented a paper on upgrading high-silica ores or concentrates with sodium hydroxide to extract silica and to yield a product with a more favorable manganese: silica ratio. The NaOH is, regenerated in part by CaO.

Jan 1, 1952

The 128th meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers constituted a two weeks trip through the Great Northland of Ontario and Quebec and was a most memorable occasion. The last visit of the Institute to Canada was made in 1907 when the mines, which now have brought world wide fame to some of the camps, were not yet dis-covered. The party reached its greatest numbers at Porcupine where 167 visitors and nearly one hundred local members participated. Five members of the party from the States were on the previous trip in 1907. They were Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Huntoon, John Stevenson and son and E. F. Eurich. The Minister of Mines for the Province of Ontario attached his private car to the "Mining Engineers' Special" and made the complete trip through Ontario. This was a happy incident in many ways and gave the visitors an opportunity to discover a spirit of mutual accord between the Minister and mining industry that might well be emulated elsewhere. Two compartment cars and one standard Pullman with the Institute members from New York and the metropolitan district were attached special to the 6.15 p.m. Lehigh Valley train from New York, Sunday, Aug. 19, en route to Toronto, where was held the first session of the Institute's 128th Meeting.

Jan 9, 1923

By Paul D. V. Manning

MAGNESIUM is an exceedingly strategic material but the importance of its production at the time this war started was not realized. Our Government then suddenly became much alive to the need of a tremendous increase in magnesium output, and became a participator in the industry. In this paper an attempt will be made to given an over-all picture of the industry as it has been, and is being, developed. The present war is giving a great acceleration to the use of lighter metals. Development of facilities for production of great tonnages of aluminum and magnesium is bound to bring about some interesting changes in later peace times because costs will be low and production capacities high. As our knowledge of the metallurgy of magnesium alloys increases, this metal will become of vital peacetime importance and will be used in ways we do not now imagine. Household refrigerators, furniture, automobiles, even houses will all be lightened through the use of magnesium.

Jan 1, 1943

By AIME AIME

MORE than thirty members of the Coal Division attended the Coal Land Valuations Round Table on Monday morning. Chairman Dilworth stated that the Committee had been appointed to take up the question and, after reading the list of members of the Committee, pointed out that the object of the meeting was to formulate a plan of action rather than to discuss any phases of valuation, per se. To this end he presented a tentative outline of points to be considered in the future by the Committee. After a lively discussion on the desirability of inclusion of some questions in the agenda of the Committee, the following outline was adopted :

Jan 1, 1931

By AIME AIME

THE annual meeting of the Auxiliary to the A. I. M. E. was marked by the most delightful cordiality and warm spirit of welcome on the part of the members of the New York Section and an equally charming spirit of cooperation and appreciation on the part of the visitors. On Monday Mrs. Ernest H. Wolfes and Mrs. Charles A. Bohn had charge of registration and most efficiently .provided everyone with the necessary tickets and badges. The reception hall and regisfration booth were gay with beautiful flowers that reflected the welcoming spirit one found there. The smooth efficiency with which the whole program ran was due largely to the tireless efforts of Mrs. Donald M. Liddell and Mrs. Louis D. Huntoon, joint chairmen of the Ladies' Committee, and Miss Margaret Callow, chairman of the Junior Committee. After registering, the ladies proceeded to- the fifth floor, where they had luncheon with the members of the A. I. M. E. On that day Mrs. W. H. Bassett and Mrs. Lucius W. Mayer were the hostesses.

Jan 1, 1929

By Charles H. Foreman

IN JUNE 1921, the Sullivan &lining Co., owned jointly by the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mining & Concentrating Co. and the Hecla Mining Co, started work on the development of the Star Mine. The development work contemplated called for a crosscut from the Hecla workings on the 2000 level to the Star ledge. The length of crosscut necessary to encounter the Star ledge was approximately 8900 ft. from the Hecla shaft. By using workings formerly made by the Hecla Mining Co., only about 8100 ft. of actual crosscutting was necessary. This crosscut has a direction of S 20° W and would have a tendency to crosscut any ledges in the intervening ground.

Jan 1, 1924

By Betty L. Gibbs

A company must have an organized approach to effectively sort through the profusion of available software and hardware and find the programs and equipment which fit defined needs. The selection process must build a complete compatible system which includes hardware and software. The methodology presented in this paper helps identify some of the more important considerations. The steps needed for an organized approach to software/hardware selection are: •All involved staff should contribute to an assessment of current computer capabilities and projection of future needs. •Alternatives are analyzed to determine what software and hardware is available and how selections may possibly be merged into the existing computer system. The evaluation process focuses on details of program capability and hardware compatibility. Analysis must be done to determine how closely individual programs fit the established requirements. The final decision is often a balance of needs between program capabilities and hardware availability. Any programs selected must be able to run on existing and newly purchased hardware. Any additional hardware selected must be capable of meshing with the available computer system.

Jan 1, 1983

By ROY BERENTZ

MANUFACTURE is the transformation of material by the application of energy and power. The energy of a man exerted throughout a day is equivalent to about one horsepower-hour of mechanical work an amount which can be purchased for less than 2c. It is evident that manual labor is uneconomical if mechanical energy can be applied effectively, or without disproportionate expense. Since manual energy is relatively so costly, economy demands that mechanical power be employed so as to reduce the human effort connected with mining operations to a minimum. Power, like other commodities, is most efficiently produced in large quantities. Mechanical transmission, once prevailing, is being rapidly superseded by electric drive. There are many reasons for this change; such as increased production, ease and accuracy of control, convenient application, ease of moving, etc.

Jan 1, 1930

By CHARLES HOPPER

In preparing the Steep Rock Lake iron ore body for mining, it was necessary to drain Steep Rock Lake. Using diamond drills, a cut 1800 ft long, 100 ft wide, and maximum depth of 95 ft amounting to 300,000 cu yd of material, was excavated in Greenstone to provide a drainage channel. This was done under the general contractor C. A. Pitts, of Toronto, who in turn employed a diamond drill contractor, Boyles Bros., to do the drilling. The method of excavation was selected be- cause a clean square cut and grade could be maintained in the bottom of the channel. Bootlegged holes would have left blocks of rock in the corners which would have created a situation which would have become progressively worse as the open cut advanced from one side of the ridge to the other.

Jan 1, 1949

New York, March 18, 1913. MR. CHARLES F. RA ND, President, New YORK, MARCH American Institute of Mining Engineers. Dear Sir: In connection with the official notice of Dr. Raymond's unanimous election by the Directors as Secretary Emeritus, we wish to place upon record certain statements concerning his services to the Institute which we think have not been published., and may not be generally known to the majority of our fellow-members. When the Institute was formed in 1871, Dr. Raymond acted as Secretary of the Founders' Meeting, and became the first Vice-President of the Institute, and, by request of the aged and beloved David Thomas, who was the first President of the Institute, Dr. Raymond discharged all the duties of the office of President, to which he was later formally elected in 1872, and which lip held for three years. During that time, he visited Europe, and through his acquaintance and reputation abroad, established those international relations of the Institute which proved so important in later years. He also enlisted the support of the mining engineers and metallurgists of the Pacific Slope, who would not otherwise have been disposed to join a society originating in the East. And for twelve years he attended; at his own expense, nearly every meeting of the Institute, wherever held, giving to it without remuneration his best service, and sacrificing for it many professional and private interests.

Jan 4, 1913

By H. Kenworthy, M. M. Fine

The progress made to date in the mineral dressing of complex Arkansas titanium ores is reported in this paper. Concentrates of rutile, a dioxide of titanium, were produced by treating a submarginal ore from the Magnet Cove Rutile Co., Inc., Magnet, Ark. The rutile recovery at present is 45 to 50 pct of the total TiO2 with the possibility of increased recovery with additional research. The work reported herein is part of a general study which will later include results of investigation of other titanium ore bodies in the Magnet, Ark., area. The fragile character of the rutile minerals, the softness of the gangue, the occurrence of pyrite and leucoxene, and the considerable proportion of extremely small size rutile in the presence of montmorillonite- and illite- type clays in the Magnet Cove open-pit mine are the important factors in the mineral dressing of this submarginal rutile ore.

Jan 1, 1949

By William Hume-Rothery

I need not say how much I appreciate the honor of being asked to lecture to you, and how much I would thank you for your kind invitation. It is encouraging to feel that the abnormal restrictions of the war have been relaxed sufficiently to allow a free exchange of scientists between our two countries, and I hope that some of you will be persuaded to go to England, and to visit us at Oxford, so that I may repay a little of the kindness I have received from you. As this is one of the first lectures since the end of the war, I have thought it well to describe some of the advances in the theory of alloys which were made in the years between the two World Wars. From the point of view of theoretical science, these years have been of outstanding interest in the history of metallurgy. They have been years in which the development of new and more accurate experimental methods has led to the revelation of many new facts. At the same time, the theoretical developments have enabled some of these facts to be viewed as parts of a general scheme, and we may say that some of the foundations of metallurgical science have been laid. This work was naturally stopped by the Second World War, and it can therefore be reviewed as one definite stage in the development of our Science. To illustrate the new advances, I shall deal mainly with the alloys of copper and silver, since these have revealed many of the general principles. taken, and copper had been found to crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure (Fig I). The determination of this structure naturally was of immense importance in the understanding of our subject, because it meant that we were at last in a position to appreciate the underlying structure out of which the crystal of copper was built. The earlier science of metallography had shown that in many alloys of copper the addition of a second metal in not too large proportions resulted in the formation of a homogeneous alloy which was regarded as a solid solution of the one metal in copper. Fig 2, for example, shows the so-called equilibrium diagram of the copper-zinc alloys, and here you will see that there is a solid solution of zinc in copper extending to something of the order 35 to 40 at. pct zinc.

Jan 1, 1947

By William Hume-Rothery

I need not say how much I appreciate the honor of being asked to lecture to you, and how much I would thank you for your kind invitation. It is encouraging to feel that the abnormal restrictions of the war have been relaxed sufficiently to allow a free exchange of scientists between our two countries, and I hope that some of you will be persuaded to go to England, and to visit us at Oxford, so that I may repay a little of the kindness I have received from you. As this is one of the first lectures since the end of the war, I have thought it well to describe some of the advances in the theory of alloys which were made in the years between the two World Wars. From the point of view of theoretical science, these years have been of outstanding interest in the history of metallurgy. They have been years in which the development of new and more accurate experimental methods has led to the revelation of many new facts. At the same time, the theoretical developments have enabled some of these facts to be viewed as parts of a general scheme, and we may say that some of the foundations of metallurgical science have been laid. This work was naturally stopped by the Second World War, and it can therefore be reviewed as one definite stage in the development of our Science. To illustrate the new advances, I shall deal mainly with the alloys of copper and silver, since these have revealed many of the general principles. taken, and copper had been found to crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure (Fig I). The determination of this structure naturally was of immense importance in the understanding of our subject, because it meant that we were at last in a position to appreciate the underlying structure out of which the crystal of copper was built. The earlier science of metallography had shown that in many alloys of copper the addition of a second metal in not too large proportions resulted in the formation of a homogeneous alloy which was regarded as a solid solution of the one metal in copper. Fig 2, for example, shows the so-called equilibrium diagram of the copper-zinc alloys, and here you will see that there is a solid solution of zinc in copper extending to something of the order 35 to 40 at. pct zinc.

Jan 1, 1947

By William Hume-Rothery

MR. CHAIRMAN, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: I need not say how much I appreciate the honor of being asked to lecture to you, and how much I would thank you for your kind invitation. It is encouraging to feel that the abnormal restrictions of the war have been relaxed sufficiently to allow a free exchange of scientists between our two countries, and I hope that some of you will be persuaded to go to England, and to visit us at Oxford, so that I may repay a little of the kindness I have received from you. As this is one of the first lectures since the end of the war, I have thought it well to describe some of the advances in the theory of alloys which were made in the years between the two World Wars. From the point of view of theoretical science, these years have been of outstanding interest in the history of metallurgy. They have been years in which the development of new and more accurate experimental methods has led to the revelation of many new facts. At the same time, the theoretical developments have enabled some of these facts to be viewed as parts of a general scheme, and we may say that some of the foundations of metallurgical science have been laid. This work was naturally stopped by the Second World War, and it can therefore be reviewed as one definite stage in the development of our Science. To illustrate the new advances, I shall deal mainly with the alloys of copper and silver, since these have revealed many of the general principles. SOLID SOLUTION At the beginning of our period, the first steps in X-ray crystal analysis had been taken, and copper had been found to crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure (Fig I). The determination of this structure naturally was of immense importance in the understanding of our subject, because it meant that we were at last in a position to appreciate the underlying structure out of which the crystal of copper was built. The earlier science of metallography had shown that in many alloys of copper the addition of a second metal in not too large proportions resulted in the formation of a homogeneous alloy which was regarded as a solid solution of the one metal in copper. Fig 2, for example, shows the so-called equilibrium diagram of the copper-zinc alloys, and here you will see that there is a solid solution of zinc in copper extending to something of the order 35 to 40 at. pct zinc.

Jan 1, 1947

By George H. Ashley

The present critical state of the supply, distribution, and utilization of coal and the necessity for pooling and zoning coals calls renewed attention to the lack of any fully adequate classification of coal. In the past coals have been classified as anthracite, semianthracite, semibitumi-nous, bituminous, subbituminous coals, and lignite, and a few special types, such as splint coal and cannel coal. But under the term bituminous coal are included a great variety of coals differing markedly both physically and chemically. The term subbituminous coal covers as great a range of chemical differences. In order to distinguish these varieties of bituminous coals it has been customary to designate coal by names derived from the place where mined, or by the name of the bed from which it is mined. Thus, in the market reports, coals are quoted as Pocahontas coal, New River or Sewell coal, Moshannon coal, Ohio coal, Williamson County coal, Jellico coal, and so on indefinitely, no limit being set as to the boundaries of the area to which a given name is applied. Nor is there any scale by which the coal from one place may be compared with the coal from some other district or some other bed. On the one hand, coals from the same district may be quite distinct and sell at very different prices or coal from the same bed may differ greatly in different districts; on the other hand, coals from different states may be so similar physically and chemically that one could replace the other in practical use without any appreciable difference in service. The following classification, arrived at after a careful review of a large number of systems of classification and of all of the recognized characteristics of coal, brings together all coals that so nearly resemble each other physically, chemically, and in heating qualities that any coal of a given type could replace any other coal of the same type and grade in use. Thus, if coals A and B are classed as of the same type and grade they have, so far as known to the writer, approximately the same heating value when burned under the same conditions, and the same character, length of flame, and properties affecting transportation and stocking; and if of the same grade, approximately the same percentage of impurities.

Jan 1, 1920

By E. E. Bach

The administration of industrial organization today embraces more than the cost of production and selling prices. Competition is deeper seated than mechanical devices, overhead charges, and a shrewd manipulation of the markets. Despite the " down-to-the-minute " equipment and the "last word in organization," it is quite evident that "capacity production" will be an unknown quantity until the workman is considered as a producer, in relation to his home, as he is now considered in relation to industry. Whether or not a man shall do an honest day's work is as much a psychological condition as it is a matter of physical strength or skill. His attitude toward his work each morning is determined, to a large degree, by the environment of his home. Whether this attitude, good or bad, obtains the day through will depend entirely upon the one fact as to whether the corporation which employs him does or does not differentiate between the mechanical factor and the human factor in industry. To be more specific, sociological work, under whatever name, should be of such a character as to influence the life of a workman in such a manner as to establish a cooperative interest in his work, foster within him a spirit of contentment in his home, lead him so to employ his leisure time that he will not lower his efficiency as a workman, destroy his domestic happiness, or endanger his standing in the community as a citizen. While no fixed rules of procedure can well be formulated for the development of the work, yet definite lines of activities will readily present themselves as applicable to the individual needs of a community. This is especially true where community influences and agencies pertaining to general welfare are easily correlated. Any definite work attempted must be determined by the type of the

Jan 1, 1918

By H. W. Turner

Lying to the east of the Rio Grande, in central New Mexico, is a long N. and S. mountain range, broken into separate ridges at several points. These have received separate names; the mountains at the south end, near El Paso, being known as the Franklin mountains, and then, following successively, to the north, the San Andreas range, Sierra Oscura, Manzano and Sandia mountains. At the eastern base of the Sierra Oscura there are several low ridges, remarkable for their red color. All of these red ridges contain reefs of copper-ore. The eastern flanks of the Sierra Oscura are composed of limestone. Some fossils in the limestone were examined by Prof. J. P. Smith of Stanford University, who says they are Fusulina and indicate an Tipper Carboniferous age. The sandstones and shales containing the copper-reefs directly overlie this limestone (Fig. I), and are very likely of Permian age, like the similar beds in Texas, described by Mr. W. F. Cummins.* Overlying the copper-beds are red sandstones and shales in which very little copper has been found. The cupriferous zone and the red sandstones and shales are everywhere associated, and as one stands on a high point, he will see that these rocks form three main belts or lines of hills. These may be referred to as the northern, middle and southern belts. The northern belt was not visited by me, but is known to contain copper-deposits. The middle belt has a trend of N. of W. and S. of E. The copper-reefs have been traced for a distance of more than 2 miles. The southern belt has a trend of about N. 30' W. and S. 30°

Jan 1, 1903

By W. L. Hill, W. H. Armiger, S. D. Gooch

The physical properties, chemical behavior under thermal treatment, and fertilizer value of fluorine-containing pseudowavellite (hydrous calcium aluminum phosphate) that occurs as phosphate clay admixed with quartz sand in an extensive deposit near Bartow, Fla., were determined by experiments in laboratory, pilot-plant, and greenhouse. When the mineral was heated at 500°C, 80 pct of the phosphorus became citrate soluble. The heated product, however, deteriorates markedly under moist conditions such as obtain in the soil.

Jan 1, 1950

THOSE NOT MARKED ARE MEMBERS; MARKED THUS t ARE ASSOCIATES. HEAVY-FACED TYPE SIGNIFIES HONORARY MEMBERSHIP. JUNIOR MEMBERS ARE MARKED II. THE FIGURES AT THE END OF THE ADDRESS INDICATE THE YEAR OF ELECTION. AARONS, J. BOYD, Genl. Mgr., Chaffers G. M. Co., Boulder City, West. Australia. '05 ABADIE, EMILE R., Min. Engr Box 291, Porterville, Tulare Co., Cal. '76 ABBOTT, CLARENCE E., Genl. Supt., Iron Mines Div., 1405 Minnesota Ave., Bessemer, Ala. '04 ABBOTT, J. W., Min. Engr., "St. Omer," 123 N. Grand Ave., Los Angeles, Cal. '94 ABBOTT, Louis BENJAMIN, Chief Engr., Consolidation Coal Co., Elkhorn Div., Jenkins, Ky. '15 ABBOTT, ROBERT R., Met. Engr., Peerless Motor Car Co., Cleveland, Ohio. '12 ABE, ASAKA Yamagano G. M., Satsuma-Gori, Satsuma, Japan. '14 || ABRAHAMS, A. I., Student 1391 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. '14 tACKER, E. O'C., Met Bethlehem Steel Co., Bethlehem, Pa. '86 ACKER, Louis K., JR., Min. Engr 565 Highland Place, Bellevue, Pa. '08

Jan 1, 1917

By R. B. Full

DURING the summer of 1949, the United Nations Scientific Conference on the Conservation and Utilization of Resources met at Lake Success. As summed up by one writer, the purpose was: "That everyone will try to learn how to feed more people from an acre of land." That objective is a stimulus to the phosphate rock industry as well as other industries. Phosphate rock was mined first in the Canadian province of Quebec where it was found as an apatite in pockets. In 1863, mining began near the Rideau Canal, first in open trenches and quarries until shafts were sunk. These operations were difficult since hard rock had to be drilled and blasted. Steam was the source of power. The phosphate rock was hand-selected and recovery ranged from 6 to 10 pct, averaging 70 pct to 85 pct bpl (bone phosphate of lime). Costs, f.O.b. Montreal, were $14 a ton, and selling prices averaged $17 a ton. In 1885, about 29,-000 tons were sold on this basis, but by 1892 the output fell to 8000 tons at an average price of $15 a ton at Montreal. South Carolina Deposits Phosphate rock was first discovered in South Carolina in 1837, but a mining company was not formed until 1867. It was immediately successful, and the industry continued to develop and ship an increased tonnage of land and river rock, shipments increasing from approximately 20,000 tons in 1868 to 537,000 tons in 1890, when the shipments began to decrease. In 1892 only 350,000 tons were shipped. In this field there were two types of deposits: land rock and river rock. More land rock tonnage was mined until about 1887 when river rock production began to equal it. The land rock was mined adjacent to and in the river marshes by pick, shovel, and wheelbarrow. Each worker dug daily a space 6 ft wide, 15 ft long and 6 ft deep, which was overburden, and then loaded about 3 cu yd of phosphate rock into wheelbarrows. His helper would wheel the barrows to small steam railroads up to 250 ft distant. Water was kept from the pits by steam pumps connected to railway cars. The phosphate rock was loaded into railroad cars, hauled and dumped into a log washer to which water was added, and run over trommel screens to eliminate the clay and loose sand. Steam shovels for loading were introduced about 1891. River rock was mined by floating dipper dredges and at low tide was loaded into barges by laborers using oyster tongs, the large lumps being hand-loaded. Barges and bateaus were unloaded by wheelbarrows which were wheeled to the same type of land rock washers. The washer product was piled with stacked pine cordwood in alternate layers and fired for drying. Usually this was done under sheds along the river bank. The dried rock then was transferred to ships, usually three or four-masted schooners. Cost of production of both land and river rock, including $1 a ton royalty paid to the state for state-owned property, was approximately $4.25 a ton averaging 60 pct bpl. The selling price was approximately $7 a ton f.O.b. In 1886 the courts handed down a decision permitting anyone to mine, and many additional companies were organized immediately. As a result, the selling price was lowered to a profit margin of 50Ø or less per ton. The South Carolina mines were eventually shut down when a more profitable source of phosphate rock was discovered in Florida. Florida Deposits Phosphate rock was discovered in Florida in 1882, and in 1883 a small quarry was opened near Hawthorne. In 1886 phosphate rock of good grade was discovered on Peace River, and the Arcadia Phosphate Co. was formed. In 1888 the company began shipments amounting to 3000 tons that year. During the latter part of 1888, hard-rock phosphate was discovered near Dunnellon. Exploration extended rapidly, and deposits of hard-rock phosphate were mined over a wide area so that shortly after 1900

Jan 1, 1952