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By C. A. Zapffe, C.E. Sims

Many hundreds of publications have appeared during the past 78 years that treat the subject of hydrogen in iron and steel.l05 but conclusions regarding the functions of hydrogen in causing some important defects in steel are still unsatisfactory to many; and other hydrogen-caused phenomena yet remain to be identified with this gas. The most widely discussed of these defects is hydrogen embrittlement, but the conception, perhaps the popular one, that embrittlelnent is due to hydride formation aoes not conform to the known facts.l04 The true identity of hydrogen embrittlement seems instead to lie in a mosaic nature of metal crystals, which is a concept not Yet accepted by most metallurgists. A study of hydrogen embrittlement therefore provides new viewpoints in regard to the crystalline substructure of steel.

Jan 1, 1941

By C. E. Sims, C. A. Zapffe

Many hundreds of publications have appeared during the past 78 years that treat the subject of hydrogen in iron and steel.l05 but conclusions regarding the functions of hydrogen in causing some important defects in steel are still unsatisfactory to many; and other hydrogen-caused phenomena yet remain to be identified with this gas. The most widely discussed of these defects is hydrogen embrittlement, but the conception, perhaps the popular one, that embrittlelnent is due to hydride formation aoes not conform to the known facts.l04 The true identity of hydrogen embrittlement seems instead to lie in a mosaic nature of metal crystals, which is a concept not Yet accepted by most metallurgists. A study of hydrogen embrittlement therefore provides new viewpoints in regard to the crystalline substructure of steel.

Jan 1, 1941

By AIME AIME

THE annual fall meeting of the Institute of Metals and the Iron and Steel divisions, in conjunction with the American .Society for Steel Treating and the Metal Congress and Show, at Boston was from many standpoints the most successful we have had to date. While many faces were missing from the various gatherings, the Institute registration reached the high mark of 324 members and guests. Cooperating with the Steel Treaters were also the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Automotive Engineers and the American Welding Society. ,The meeting was, as usual, a three-ring circus with technical sessions 'galore, plant .trips, visits to the Exposition, social events such as lunch- eons and dinners as well as entertainment for the ladies present.

Jan 1, 1931

By James M. Barker

Sulfur is a nonmetallic element of great physical and economic importance to the world. It is widely but sparingly distributed throughout the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe and eighth most abundant in the sun. In the earth's crust, which is mainly igneous, it ranks 14th, but is eighth or ninth in sediments (Kaplan, 1972; Stanton, 1972). It apparently is very abundant in the core of the earth, because it is a strong chalcophile, and it is fifth in abundance in stony and iron meteorites (Field, 1972) where it occurs as trolite (FeS). In ancient times sulfur was called brimstone, literally "burning stone." Today the term brimstone is used interchangeably with the term elemental sulfur. Shelton (1979) summarized most of the common definitions of terms, grades, and specifications for the sulfur industry as follows (with minor additions): Sources of Sulfur: Combined sulfur-Sulfur that occurs in nature combined with other elements. Cupriferous pyrites-Pyrite containing relatively minor amounts of copper sulfide minerals. Hydrogen sulfide-A toxic gas (H2S) occurring in natural gas and petroleum. Involuntary sulfur-Sulfur produced primarily as a result of legislative or process mandates. Native sulfur-Sulfur that occurs in nature in the elemental (uncombined) form. Nonferrous metal sulfides-Copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and molybdenum sulfides that are processed for their metal content. Organic sulfurs-Complex organic sulfur compounds occurring in petroleum, coal, oil shale, and tar sands. Pyrites-Iron sulfide minerals that include pyrite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite. Sulfate sulfurs-Sulfur in anhydrite and gypsum. Voluntary sulfur-Sulfur produced in response to market forces. Basic Sulfur Products Produced and Marketed: Acid sludge-Contaminated sulfuric acid usually returned to acid plants for reconstitution. Brimstone-Synonymous with crude sulfur. Bright sulfur-Crude sulfur free of discoloring impurities and bright yellow in color. Broken sulfur-Solid crude sulfur crushed to -8 in. Byproduct sulfuric acid--Sulfuric acid produced as a byproduct of a metallurgical or industrial process, generally relating to combined sulfur sources. Crude sulfur-Commercial nomenclature for elemental sulfur. Dark sulfur-Crude sulfur discolored by minor quantities of hydrocarbons ranging up to 0.3 % carbon content. Elemental sulfur-Processed sulfur in the elemental form produced from native sulfur or combined sulfur sources, generally with a minimum sulfur content of 99.5%. Formed sulfur-Elemental sulfur cast or pressed into particular shapes to enhance handling and to suppress dust generation and moisture retention. Frasch sulfur-Elemental sulfur produced from native sulfur sources by the Frasch mining process. Hydrogen sulfide-Associated with natural gas or petroleum and produced at refineries and coke oven plants; used to make sulfuric acid or recovered sulfur. Liquid sulfur-Synonymous with molten sulfur. Liquid sulfur dioxide-Purified sulfur dioxide compressed to the liquid phase. Molten sulfur-Crude sulfur in the molten phase.

Jan 1, 1983

By Earle E. Schumacher, Alexander G. Souden

IN the field of physical metallurgy it is becoming increasingly difficult to keep abreast of the recent develop¬ments since the diversity of investigations is so great and the literature so voluminous. The purpose of this review is to present the more important advances in the nonferrous field during the past few years, the topics discussed being classified broadly as fundamental and practical. The former includes those studies that have done most toward developing the basic science of metals and alloys, and the latter includes technical developments and applications. With the rapid growth of the metal

Jan 1, 1938

By Tasuku Fuwa, John Chipman

Equilibrium data on the reactions of gases with carbon and oxygen dissolved in liquid iron are reviewed and correlated. A source of error in oxygen analysis of graphitic samples is exposed. New experimental data on the oxygen content of high -carbon iron in equilibrium with carbon monoxide indicate that the activity coefficient of oxygen is decreased by additions of carbon. The carbon-oxygen product decreases slightly with increasing carbon content. In recent years a number of investigations have been reported dealing with the equilibria between carbon and oxygen in liquid iron and gases containing carbon oxides. The laboratory study of these reactions dates back to 1931 with the publication of a paper by Vacher and Hamilton' on "The Carbon-Oxygen Equilibrium in Liquid Iron". The principal object of this study was to obtain data on the reaction shown by Eq. [3] below; their data and others by vacherZ permit evaluation of the other equilibrium constants as well. Subsequent studies have been reported by Matoba, Phragmen and Kalling and by Marshall and Chipman.5 The equilibria may be expressed by the following three equations: C + CO,= 2CO;Kl = Pc° [1] 0-+CO = CO,;K2=-P co, "0.PCO c + O = CO; K3 = In the equilibrium constants, ac and a0 are taken as equal to [% C] and [% 0] respectively in the infinitely dilute solution. At finite concentrations an activity coefficient is introduced such that ac =fc [%C], and so forth. It is to be noted that these equations represent only two independent relations, the third being derivable from any two. Richardson and Dennis have determined the conditions of equilibrium in reaction [I] at temperatures of 1560" to 1760°C. Their results have been confirmed by Rist and chipman7 who have shown how the data may be extended to cover the entire range of liquid compositions at temperatures from the eutectic up to 1760°C. An approximate confirmation has been reported by Fuwa and chipman.' These investigations also established the activity coefficient of carbon which was shown to increase rather rapidly with increasing concentration. For the very dilute solutions the value of Kl is expressed in the equation: log^i = - 7280/T+ 6.65 This equation leads to a value of Kl = 430 at 1540° C in excellent agreement with the average value of Marshall and Chipman.5 It is shown as line 1 in Fig. 1 together with the experimental observations. In the case of reaction [2] the direct experimental results can be supplemented by observations on the corresponding reaction with hydrogen, namely reaction [4]:

Jan 1, 1961

By R. Gilman Brown

INTRODUCTION. MINES are interesting by reason of what they have done for man, or of what has been done for them by nature. Not all are interesting on both scores. Many profitable mines are commonplace to the geologist; and many presenting unique geological conditions have been sad failures commercially. The Standard group at Bodie has produced in 25 years, $14,500,000, paying $5,000,000 in dividends.' On the other hand, this output has been mined (almost wholly above the 1,000-ft. level) from a system of more than 100 veins, ranging in thickness-from 0.5 in. of "specimen rock" to 30 ft. of clay and quartz; distributed through a zone about 2,000" ft. in width, and representing from three to five distinct periods of formation. This group, therefore, by reason of its industrial record as well as its geological features, may fairly be regarded as doubly interesting. The Bodie district occupies an island of recent (Tertiary) hornblende-andesite, surrounded by a complex of igneous rocks and breccias. It lies at the summit of the eastern foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, and within the Great Basin, a few miles from its western edge, marked here by Mono lake on the line of the Great Fault. The average elevation of the outcroppings of the veins may be taken at about 5,700 ft. The andesite projects from south to north in a great tongue, 12,000 ft. long and 5,000 ft. wide, reaching an extreme height at the northern end of perhaps 1,000 ft. above the adjoining small canyons. These separate it from the main mass of the foot-hill

Jul 1, 1907

By Walter F. Bradley

CLOSE to 300 members and guests were registered at the Regional Meeting of the Institute in San Francisco. Oct. 3-6, and many other mining men were present at some of the sessions, but failed to register. Headquarters were at the Palace Hotel. Technical papers for the Metals Session were sponsored by the San Francisco Section, whereas the program for the Industrial Minerals Session was arranged by the Southern California Section. Walter W. Bradley, Chairman of the San Francisco Section, opened the General and Metals Session, introducing President Buehler, who gave a hearty welcome to those present. Clyde M. Eye, of the. Benguet Consolidated Mining Co., presented the first paper, entitled "The Economic and Strategic Value of Philippine Metals to the United States." In closing, he urged. that this country retain and control the Philippines because their large

Jan 1, 1935

By Max Boehmer

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) AFTER 30 years of development and after an output of $350,000,000 in value of gold, silver, lead, zinc, and copper, there has not been published a satisfactory explanation of the origin of the immense deposits of the Leadville district. The original examination find survey of Leadville by members of the U. S. Geological Survey was a most magnificent piece of work, but their attempt to explain the origin of the ores was based upon the then-accepted theory of lateral secretion, originated by Sandberger, which theory was afterwards disproved in many cases by further development in numerous districts. This theory contended that the ore in the veins had been leached by surface-waters from the eruptive rocks in the immediate vicinity, and it had its origin in the fact that the neighboring eruptive rocks all contained, to an appreciable degree, the several metals found in the ore-deposits. But the practical miner, reasoning in a simple manner from the condition of things as he found them underground, soon discovered the fallacy of this proposition. He reasoned that, in the case of the Leadville deposits, this theory could not be true, because, if the ores were leached from the overlying eruptive rocks by surface-waters, they would as a matter of necessity be controlled by the action of gravity, and the main bodies would collect in- natural depressions of the underlying limestone, and at all points where such depressions existed. But this was not in accord with the channels of ore as he found there ; and hence the theory of lateral secretion in this district was never accepted. Another objection to it consisted in the fact that large areas within the ore-bearing district contained no ores whatever, although their formation was the same, and the same limestones were covered by the same thick sheet of

Feb 1, 1910

FOLLOWING the presentation of the papers by Messrs. Mahan and Butler, the discussion printed below ensued. A. C. LANE* With particular reference to the New England con-sumer, I entirely agree with Mr. Mahan that intelli-gent marketing methods will do a good deal, but there is more than one way of improving them. For instance, coal can be shipped best to New England about this time of year-after the storms of the winter and before the movement of crops in the summer. For that reason there ought to be seasonal freight rates. This will be agreed to by most coal men if you will ask them, especially those who are connected with large concerns like the Metropolitan Coal Co., and yet they do not get seasonal freight rates partly because the railroads are afraid if they once reduce them they will never have a chance to get them back again. But it would be an improvement to have seasonal freight rates. Another thing: When we are buying in New England we want really a certain amount of heat value in our coal. There is no great advantage in our buying ash, nor is there any particular advantage in the railroad shipping ash and clogging the circulatory system of the body politic any more than clogging the circulatory system of the physical body. It would be desirable if the wholesaler, and to some extent the retailer, could guarantee the amount of ash or sell their coal on heating value. If you are interested in that you will find some interesting charts, in "Anthracite Coal Costs Analyzed," a pamphlet issued by the Anthracite Coal Consumers Association, Inc., New York City, as to rates from various and sundry points for bituminous and anthra-cite coal from the field to New York, Buffalo and Chi-cago. Here in New England they are both up against the competition of oil. About 3 or 3 1/2 bbl. oil will do the work of a ton of coal. One of my millionaire friends who is well posted on the situation is putting oil in his Commonwealth Avenue house because it is the most economical. Moreover, we can get Welsh coal from across the water (and help equalize this matter of exchange with Europe) in close competition with Penn-sylvania coal.

Jan 4, 1928

By John V. Beall

Since the U. S. Metals Refining Co. works was established, around the turn of the century, near the town which is now called Carteret, N. J., it has grown to be a major producer of refined copper and the main source of that special brand known as "oxygen-free high-conductivity copper." Owing to the complex metallurgical problems arising from handling a variety of raw materials such as copper concentrate from Matahambre, Cuba, copper and brass scrap from the New York area, and domestic blister copper, the organization is geared from top management down through its 2000 employes to maintain a high degree of flexibility in plant operation. The Company is a subsidiary of The American Metal Co. Charges for the smelter furnaces, one reverberatory furnace and one blast furnace, are made up in. bedding bins so that they may be tailored to the production of a constant grade of blister copper. The reverberatory furnace smelts the .sulphide charge, which may be a blend of ten different materials but principally the Cuban concentrate, and the matte from the process is poured into a converter. This reverberatory is 80 by 20 ft, silica lined with a slag bottom, fired by pulverized coal, and continuously side-charged from the top by bottom-dump cars which keep the side walls covered. It produces a 40 to 50 per cent copper matte. The fuel-charge ratio is 4.35 tons of solid charge per ton of coal. The furnace has a capacity of 10,000 tons of charge per month and produces from 5000 to 6000 tons of slag per month which must be disposed of. About 5000 tons of converter slag is produced monthly and returned molten to the reverberatory furnace. The converter gases go through a spray chamber to a Cottrell precipitator and thence to the flue system. Smoke from the

Jan 1, 1948

By F. G. Smith

A FEW years ago, the writer encountered a, problem that, at first, seemed to be due to peculiar conditions affecting grain growth. Large cups made from heavy metal failed in the first drawing operation in the process of making seamless tubes. The metal, as cast, appeared to be sound and strong; it rolled successfully and withstood the first cupping operation, but on the first draw it failed, with a crystalline fracture. The failure appeared in the slightly worked part of the bottom of the cup, and microscopic examination revealed exceptionally large grains. Knowing the general conditions governing recrystallization of brass, which were later published by Matthewson and Phillips, an investigation was outlined with the idea of including various conditions under which new grains might form, and which would include the effect that a previous anneal might have upon the anneal following. These conditions were produced by annealing specimens of brass at five different temperatures, indenting them with a 10-inn. ball under four different pressures, and then reannealing at each of the five temperatures five specimens each of which had been annealed at one of the five temperatures.

Jan 8, 1919

By A. G. Gilbert

Paradoxical is the word. The coal industry, despite reach- ing a 22-year high in production (590 million tons), has been tagged as having its back to the wall vis-a-vis its valiant attempts to quench the nation's still unabated craving for coal. What must be even more reassuring to the industry, infected once with rumors of a uranium takeover, is a nation's almost insatiable appetite for electricity. Between 1967 and the summer of 1970, utility stockpiles were being gobbled up, diminishing to 79% of the January 1968 level.

Jan 1, 1971

By Robert Glass Cleland

DURING the closing month of 1929, Walter Douglas found his health impaired by the strain of many difficult years of alternating prosperity and depression, and in April 1930 resigned the presidency of Phelps Dodge. Douglas was succeeded by Louis S. Cates. The choice broke a tradition that had been held inviolate for almost a hundred years. For the first time in its long history, the direction of the company's policies and operations was entrusted to a stranger without previous Phelps Dodge background, training, experience, or tradition. But the choice was wisely made. For a time at least, the path of Phelps Dodge was to run through rough and dubious ground, and no man in the United States was better qualified to blaze that trail than Louis Cates. After graduating from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cates had served a rough and financially un- profitable apprenticeship at one of the century-old mining camps of Chihuahua, Mexico. Following his return to the United States and a brief interlude as assistant to the president of the National Steel and Wire Company, he had resumed his mining career, first as timekeeper, then as

Jan 1, 1952

By Robert Forsyth

As the latest plant on a large scale, the new Bessemer works of the North Chicago Rolling Mill Company, at South Chicago, presents some features of interest to steel-makers, I have ventured to lay before the Institute a short description of that plant, and some* remarks upon the practice there. At the time the South Chicago works were designed the adoption of the basic process in this country seemed imminent. Experience in Europe had demonstrated the perfect success of the process technically, and the question of its commercial value was one which, for any particular works, would have to be settled by its special advantages for procuring the necessary ores and basic materials. Under the circumstances, it was thought best at South Chicago to so arrange the plant as to allow the introdnction of the basic whenever it became advisable, and to make such other changes from the standard type of Bessemer plant as the state of the art seemed to demand and to foreshadow. As the use of metal direct from the blast furnace, while generally condemned by experts here, was in such successful practice in Europe (particularly in connection with the basic process), there was no doubt about its feasibility, while its economy in fuel and labor made it especially attractive to the Western manufacturer. It was accordingly decided to build a direct-metal plant adapted to the basic process. The ingots made were to be rolled into rails at one heat, and were to be of such size (12 inches square and long enough for three and four rails) as to be readily and quickly handled by the rolling machinery proposed. This small size of ingots, and the large number cast from each heat of 10 tons, made it necessary to provide a good deal of room in the casting-pit—much more than in any previons plant—and to put down extra facilities for handling ingots. To meet the delays incident to the basic process—to insure that one vessel should be always blowing if necessary, and to provide opportunity for current repairs to linings, etc.—it was decided that three vessels should be used, and, to properly concentrate the work of

Jan 1, 1884

COUNCIL OF ECONOMICS, AIME Formerly Mineral Economics Division Established as a Division December 15, 1948 Established as a Council February 26, 1957 Sheldon P Wimpfen, Chairman John D Ridge, Vice-Chairman (Mining) A J Philips, Vice-Chairman (Metals) Warren B Davis, Vice-Chairman (Petroleum) COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, AIME Formerly Mineral Industry Education Division Established as a Division January 15, 1932 Established as a Council February 26, 1957 James D Forrester, Chairman Charles V Kirkpatrick, Vice Chairman (and Chairman-elect) Lysle E Shaffer, Past Chairman Truman H Kuhn, Secretary-Treasurer Colorado School of Mines Golden, Colorado John S Bell, Contact AIME Director

Jan 1, 1960

By AIME AIME

FOR many years it has been the invariable custom of the Institute, in addition to its annual meeting in February, to hold a technical meeting in the fall in some mining or metallurgical center in the West. As the activities of the Institute have increased, and especially since the absorption 'of the American Institute of Metals, there have for a number of years been two fall meetings. Never before in the history of the Institute have there been three meetings in addition to the annual meeting in February; in 1920, however, three important fall meetings are to be held. The general Institute trip will be made this fall to the Lake Superior iron and copper country. Members will leave Buffalo on August 20 by steamer, visit the copper mines in and about Houghton, the iron mines of the Marquette and Iron Ranges of Michigan and the iron mines of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota, and' return to Buffalo by steamer on September 3. Technical sessions will be held at Houghton, Minneapolis and Duluth. For a long period it was customary for the Institute to visit the Lake Superior country about every seven years. This trip, however, will be the first visit since 1904. The unprecedented development in both copper and iron mining in this section during this period will make this trip of unusual importance. In addition, a notable series of papers will be presented.

Jan 1, 1920

By S. A. Swensrud

NINETEEN Thirty-Six was the biggest year in volume in the history of the oil industry, and unquestionably the best since 1929 in respect to profits. The quota of new and difficult problems to face seemed a little smaller during 1936 than in most recent years, and a somewhat better balance existed between the different branches of the industry. 'Domestic consumption of gasoline in 1936, estimated at about 475 million barrels-the highest on record, was approximately 11 per cent above 1935, and 26 per cent above 1929. Demand for crude oil increased in about the same proportion: over 1935, and the average production, of about three million barrels daily,' constituted a new high level.

Jan 1, 1937

Albin. B . R Billings. Mont . '28 Amnter . Nathan L 26 Broad St.. New York . N . Y . '28 Bache . Jules S 42 Broadway. New York. N . Y . '28 Borrett . C . P . 5338 Harper Ave .. Chicago. I11 '28 Baum . Frank G. . Cons . Hydro-Electric Engr Camel'. Shasta Co. . Cal. '23 Baylean, William S Russ Bldg .. San Francisco. Cal . '28 Bean, Louis H .. V.P.. Dwight P . Robinson & Co.. lnc 126 E . 46th St New York. N . Y . '28 Beatty . Roes J . 1106 First National Bank' Bldg .. Chicago . Ill . '28 Benwell . Oswald F . 110 Gilpin St .. Denver. 1310 . '28 Beymer. Albert 9.. V.P .. Keystone. National Bank Pittsburgh. Pa . '28

Jan 1, 1929

By F. R. Hutto Jr., F. L. Kady Jr., L. E. Weymouth

The behavior of particulate non-metallic materials in moving contact with smooth surfaces is of interest and concern to manufacturers and users of abrasives, of fillers, and of pigments alike. The theoretical aspects of the subject have been treated to considerable extent in the literature, and correlatic,ns are available that attempt to relate various methods of hardness determination." 2 The particle size and friability are characteristics of the abrasive that are not related to the smooth surface. The hardness, on the other hand, may be visualized as relative to that of the smooth surface. In a study of abrasive action, the role that hardness, per se, plays is a complicated one. For it is necessary to compare the "hardness" of the abrasive, usually a non-metallic, with that of the smooth surface, generally a metal. Hardness of non-metallics is defined as resistance to scratch and is almost universally described with respect to the Mohs scale.3 Minerals have been rated by Mohs numerically from the softest (talc = 1) to the hardest (diamond = 10). By definition, a mineral has a designated hardness when it is scratched by the standard that is numerically just above it on the scale; and conversely, when it scratches the standard that is just below it. Hardness of metals. however.. implies resistance to indentation, a property that has been measured by a number of methods. In fact, the indentation hardnesses of the standard minerals on the hlohs scale have been determined by the Rockwell tester. Reproduced below are two versions of this correlation. 'A conversion chart, prepared by Wilson Mechanical Instruments Division of American Chain and Cable Co., merely gives the conversion from Rockwell to Knoop hardness. The relation between Knoop indentation hardness and Mohs scale has been reported by G. S. Smith — A New Scale of Hardness, The Engineer, Aug. 26. 1949. G. F. Kinney in Engineerin Properties and Aplications of Plastics reports the Rockwell hardness of the minerals directly in the Mohs scale. The question immediately arises as to whether this relation is valid when applied in reverse; namely,

Jan 1, 1961