Search Documents

By Henry Rawdon

THE structure of wrought iron as usually described by metallographists and workers in metal in general is that of a fairly pure iron. Impurities, if present, are usually considered as being in solid solution in the crystals of the ferrite matrix or as forming part of the ever present "slag streaks." Attention is herein directed to one type of these dissolved impurities; to the detection of such impurities, particularly in low-grade irons, and to their possible influence on the physical properties of the metal. The attention of the Bureau of Standards was first directed to wrought iron of the peculiar and unusual characteristics to be described later, in material which had failed in service and was submitted for test. The examination was extended to other grades of wrought iron, to see whether such features are of common occurrence in this class of material. MICROSTRUCTURE OF WROUGHT IRON Usual Structure The general microstructure of wrought iron is so well known that a detailed description of it here is needless. There is shown in Fig. 2 the structure of a sample of Swedish iron which illustrates well the matrix of ferrite crystals in which are embedded the slag threads so characteristic of the puddling process and the subsequent working of the material. The usual commercial product contains varying amounts of the impurities commonly associated with iron and steel, i.e., manganese, phosphorus, silicon, and sulphur together with small amounts of carbon. Of these, the larger part of the phosphorus and some of the silicon present are held in solid solution in the ferrite while most of the remaining impurities, other than carbon, exist in the inclosures of slag. Aside from the discontinuities introduced by the slag streaks the ferrite matrix has the microstructure and appearance of a pure metal. No definite orientation of the various crystals or grains is apparent; deep etching of the specimens reveals no intracrystalline features (i.e., within the grains) other than those noted in "pure" metals in general (etching pits).

Jan 9, 1917

By Wilfred P. Sykes

AT intervals in the course of history an event occurs which, though scarcely heeded at the moment, marks in retrospect the beginning of a new era in some one field of human activity. Such a happening is perhaps more readily spotted in the field of technology than in other realms of human endeavor. Here the span of years is relatively short and the records have been kept with some degree of precision. In the current scene of our social and economic drama the art and science of metallurgy is playing a major role. Off stage will be found the metallurgist in one guise or another aiding, he trusts, in the development of processes and products which will contribute to the happiness of his fellow men. The results of his efforts appear in the form of metallic substances known as alloys built up from any two or more of the wide variety of metals which have been extracted from the mineral deposits in the earth's crust. An alloy by virtue of its inherent physical properties may seem ideally suited for human use in a special way but until this material can be produced economically it will fail to attain a place of prominence as an article of commerce. In fact many commercial alloys are being continually replaced by new or modified compositions better suited to meet the increasingly severe demands of industrial service.

Jan 1, 1939

Eight members of the Board, the Secretary of the Institute, and eleven guests were present. Vice-president Henry S. Drinker presided. The President was authorized to appoint delegates to a meeting, on May 16, of the League to Enforce Peace. The Joint Conference Committee reported that the American Institute of Metals had accepted the invitation to form the Institute of Metals Division of this Institute. The Committee on Publications of the Institute of Metals was added to the Committee on Publications of the A. I. M. E. Exchange of one volume of Transactions of the A. I. M. E. at reduced price to members of the British Institute of Metals was authorized, in return for the reduced price given to our Institute of Metals Division on the annual proceedings of the British Institute.

Jan 6, 1918

By Davis Baker

The direct-metal cars or ladles of the Maryland Steel Company have a capacity of 18 tons when filled within 12 inches of the top. On account of this large capacity, the formation of skulls in these ladles is by no means as rapid as in smaller ladles; but a skull once formed is a very unwieldy piece of metal to handle, and especially to remove from the ladle. We have found it cheaper to clean ladles often rather than make very heavy skulls. We aim to keep the ring of chilled metal that forms on the surface of the iron chipped off, so that the skull shall form principally at the bottom until it becomes so thick as to render the ladle unfit for service. Sometimes it happens that a ladle may be held for several hours filled with molten metal. This invariably leaves a large amount of chilled metal in the ladle. Frequently the skull will weigh several tons, and will be of the full size of the ladle inside, with a top crust, having perhaps a hole 12 inches square, through which the molten metal was poured. In order to remove skulls that cannot be easily chipped out with a bar, we use what may be called a skull-extractor, consisting of a hydraulic cylinder mounted in the center of a heavy cast-iron plate, standing vertically on a suitable foundation. Figs. 1 and 2 show the construction and operation of this apparatus, Fig. 1 being a view of the extractor with pistons extended to full stroke, and Fig. 2 a view with ladle in position and pistons about to commence the stroke. in both figures, A is the hydraulic cylinder, B the vertical cast-iron plate, and C the foundation. The water-pressure, admitted through the pipe, P, is 750 pounds per square inch, and the inside diameter of A is 14 inches. There are two pistons: D, fitting the bore of the cylinder, and E, 84 inches in diameter, moving inside of D. Both pistons move together when

Jan 1, 1893

An appropriate change in Art. I, Sec. 9, of the bylaws was voted by the Board on April 16 whereby, in the case of Student Associates applying for change of status to Junior Member, only two endorsers are needed instead of three, provided one of them is the same member who endorsed his original application for Student Associateship.

Jan 1, 1952

By George F. Becker

A Nere record of Emmons's professional career would very inadequately represent the man. That he was eminent mc know, and our successors will realize in due time; but they must depend upon us for knowledge of a singularly ~vholesome, modest, unselfish personality, and of a character that did honor to a profession in which trustworthiness is indispensable. Those members of the Institute who met Emmons are his friends, and I never knew .one of these who was not the better for that friendship. Emmons was born in Boston, Mar. 29, 1841, the son of Xathaniel H. and Elizabeth (Wales) Emmons, and was named Samuel Frankliri after an ancestor who was of the sarne family as Benjamin Franklin. He took the degrcc of Bachelor of Arts at Harvard in 1861, and soon afterwards went abroad to complete his education. From 1862 to 1864 he attended the courses at the fieole Impkriale des Mines at Paris, Elie de Beaumont arid Daubrke being among his professors. The year 1864-1865 he spent at Freiberg under Cotta and other famous teachers; after which he spent another year in traveling through Europe. Like many other renowned geologists, he approached his ultimate profession from its economic side, and was thus from the first imbued with a sense of high responsibility in the promulgation of scientific opinions or conclusions. With hypotheses which were interesting merely because they were ingenious or even plausible, he would have nothing to do. In 1867 he joined the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel at its organization under Clarence King, serving at first as a volunteer, but soon receiving a regular appointment. This expedition was the first one of purely geological character sent out by the United States government. As Emmons has shown in his admirable presidential address on " The Geology of Government Explorations," its work was founded on a com-

Jan 1, 1912

By John M. Kelly

New Mexico produced 31,913,816 bbl. of oil in 1942, the lowest annual production since 1936, and dropped one place to rank eighth among oil-producing states. This production decreased 7,838,052 bbl., or 19.71 per cent, from the 1941 figure is the result of transportation difficulties caused by the dislocation of tanker sailings to east coast ports. The average per-well allowable in New Mexico on Jan. I, 1942, was 43 bbl. and at the end of the year was 38 bbl. Allocations as set by the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission followed the recommendations of the Petroleum Administrator for War. After setting the daily outlet, however, the average daily pipe-line runs were 87,545 bbl.—11.06 per cent short of these allocations. Production for Lea County was 26,812,949 bbl., Eddy County 4,624,578 bbl., northwestern New Mexico 473,609 bbl., Chaves County 2,680 barrels. Drilling activity for New Mexico in 1942 was approximately 84 per cent of that in 1941 with 339 completions. Of these completions 254 were oil wells, II gas wells, and 74 dry holes. Proven fields accounted for 55 of the dry holes and 19 were wildcats. Three new oil fields and one new gas field were discovered as the result of wildcat drilling. Extensions were made to one oil field and one gas field. By the close of the year, the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission had designated 59 areas as proven for oil and/or gas. Southeastern New Mexico Lea County Monument was again the largest producing field in the state, with 5,729,336 bbl.; Eunice was next, with 5,217,965; Vacuum produced 3,295,624 and Hobbs 2,973,488. The Hobbs field has the largest accumulated production, which at the close of 1942 totaled 100,381,417 bbl. The 100-million-barrel mark for Hobbs focused attention on the fact that this is the first field in the state to attain this figure, and also that, as Hobbs has been under continuous proration since July 1930, or approximately the entire life of the field, this 100-million-barrel recovery was obtained with 86 per cent of the wells in the pool still flowing and having a drop in bottom-hole pressure of only 3.5 Ib. per million barrels recovered. Hobbs stands out as perhaps the best regulated major oil field in the world. Two new oil fields were discovered in Lca County, the most inlportant being the area designated as East Lusk, consisting of the south 4 tiers of Sections in T. 19 S., R. 32 E. The discovery well was drilled in the SW. SW. 1/4 of sec. 21, T. 19 S., R. 32 E., by Culbertson and Irwin, Inc., and others. It was completed at a total depth of 2751 ft. in the Seven Rivers formation of Permian age. The initial potential of the well was 237 bbl. per day on pump. The oil produced has a gravity of 24.10 A.P.I., with sulphur content of 0.9 per cent. This oil has an asphaltic base and because

Jan 1, 1943

By John M. Kelly

New Mexico produced 31,913,816 bbl. of oil in 1942, the lowest annual production since 1936, and dropped one place to rank eighth among oil-producing states. This production decreased 7,838,052 bbl., or 19.71 per cent, from the 1941 figure is the result of transportation difficulties caused by the dislocation of tanker sailings to east coast ports. The average per-well allowable in New Mexico on Jan. I, 1942, was 43 bbl. and at the end of the year was 38 bbl. Allocations as set by the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission followed the recommendations of the Petroleum Administrator for War. After setting the daily outlet, however, the average daily pipe-line runs were 87,545 bbl.—11.06 per cent short of these allocations. Production for Lea County was 26,812,949 bbl., Eddy County 4,624,578 bbl., northwestern New Mexico 473,609 bbl., Chaves County 2,680 barrels. Drilling activity for New Mexico in 1942 was approximately 84 per cent of that in 1941 with 339 completions. Of these completions 254 were oil wells, II gas wells, and 74 dry holes. Proven fields accounted for 55 of the dry holes and 19 were wildcats. Three new oil fields and one new gas field were discovered as the result of wildcat drilling. Extensions were made to one oil field and one gas field. By the close of the year, the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission had designated 59 areas as proven for oil and/or gas. Southeastern New Mexico Lea County Monument was again the largest producing field in the state, with 5,729,336 bbl.; Eunice was next, with 5,217,965; Vacuum produced 3,295,624 and Hobbs 2,973,488. The Hobbs field has the largest accumulated production, which at the close of 1942 totaled 100,381,417 bbl. The 100-million-barrel mark for Hobbs focused attention on the fact that this is the first field in the state to attain this figure, and also that, as Hobbs has been under continuous proration since July 1930, or approximately the entire life of the field, this 100-million-barrel recovery was obtained with 86 per cent of the wells in the pool still flowing and having a drop in bottom-hole pressure of only 3.5 Ib. per million barrels recovered. Hobbs stands out as perhaps the best regulated major oil field in the world. Two new oil fields were discovered in Lca County, the most inlportant being the area designated as East Lusk, consisting of the south 4 tiers of Sections in T. 19 S., R. 32 E. The discovery well was drilled in the SW. SW. 1/4 of sec. 21, T. 19 S., R. 32 E., by Culbertson and Irwin, Inc., and others. It was completed at a total depth of 2751 ft. in the Seven Rivers formation of Permian age. The initial potential of the well was 237 bbl. per day on pump. The oil produced has a gravity of 24.10 A.P.I., with sulphur content of 0.9 per cent. This oil has an asphaltic base and because

Jan 1, 1943

By E. Horton Jones

CONTENTS I Page Introduction ....:......................... 3 Chapter I. Unit Costs. . ...................... 4 Chapter II. Comparative Costs ..................... 20 Chapter III. Composite Costs..................... 32 Chapter IV. Wage Scale....................... 36 Chapter V. Raw Material Prices................. 37 Chapter VI. Description oF Costs ................... 64 Introduction We have endeavored in the following "sheets" to give the unit construction costs derived from 'the building of the Arizona Copper Co.'s new smelter, Clifton, Ariz., starting in February, 1912, and completing February, 1914.l In Chapter I—Unit Costs—are to be found the most elementary total unit costs which the accounts provide for. They are usable in the Clifton district. Here too are found the percentages to be added to an estimate for Engineering and General Expense. In Chapter II—Comparative Costs—these elementary costs have been classified, averaged and reported as labor and material unit costs. In such form the labor unit costs, when properly applied to similar conditions as these under which they were derived, are usable anywhere. The material unit costs are better disregarded for more accurate estimates and replaced by a newly priced bill of material. In Chapter III Composite Costs are given. They are unit costs built up from several elementary units, and likewise units of larger dimensions and simpler application, valuable for

Jan 1, 1915

By E. L. Anders

The Mile Six pool is located on the La Brea-Parinas Cullcession of International Petroleum Co., Ltd., in northwestern Peru on the west coast of South America. The reservoir pressure in this pool has been maintained within 200 psi of its initial value throughout its history, and gravity drainage has played an important role in the production behavior. It has now produced 95 per cent of its estimated ultimate recovery. It is estimated that this interesting oil pool will ultimately produce 67 per cent of the initial oil in place and that the resulting residual oil saturation may be as low as 19 per cent of the pore volume (29 per cent of the hydrocarbon pore volume). An evaluation of reservoir rock and fluid characteristics and ultimate oil recovery is presented. INTRODUCTION This study of Mile Six pool was made to evaluate its performance according to latest available information. The production performance of this pool has been discussed in various articles in the past. and the reported behavior has been used as an example for application of computation procedures for gravity drainage depletion' and as an illustration of field behavior under gravity drainage or expanding gas cap drive. There have been wide variations in reported values of initial oil in place, reservoir oil volume factor. connate-water sauration, volume of effective sand, and ultimate recovery because of the paucity of reliable basic data. These various factors have been determined as accurately as practicable with the latest available information, and this evaluation is presented herein. The production history of Mile Six is an excellent example of gravity drainage depleion with effective pressure maintenance by gar injection. GENERAL Mile Six pool was discovered by cable-tool drilling in November. 1927. when well 1996 was completed in the Parinas sand. After slow development with cable tools and sporadic production. the pool was opened to continuous pro(iuction in November. 1933. and develpment was completed with rotary rigs. Pressure maintenance was started in December, 1933. by returning gas to upstructure wells. Most of the development was 'completed by 1937, but some additional wells were drilled in the period 1939-1947. and several old wells were deepened. A total of 46 oil and gas wells and 4 dry holes were drilled on approximately 7-acre spacing. Of the producers. 21 are now flowing. 2 are pumping. 44 are gas input wells. 3 are abandoned. I is a gas well shut in. and 15 are shut in because of non-commercial production or high gas-oil ratio. The locations of all wells are shown on the map of Fig. I. Total oil production on Dec. 31. 1952, was 30,867,373 bbl: cumulative gas production was 22,023,777 Mcf; and 26,410,946 Mcf of gas had been returned to the reservoir. These figures do not include oil and gas lost ill a blowout in January. 1940. GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION Mile Six pool is located on the northern end of a structural spur projecting from the La Brea-Negritos uplift.' The spur is probably a reflection of a basement structure. It plunges gently to the north, i broken into a complex series of fault blocks. and contain.; the Verdun Alto. Section Sixteen. and Mile Six pools. The Parinas handstone (lower Eocene!. which is the producing formation in Mile Six. occurs at an average depth of 2,200 ft in the pool and dips north and east at from 15' to 20". The pool covers an area of approximately 350 acres. Mile Six is downfaulted about 600 ft from Section Sixteen pool to the soutb. and a major fault forms its western boundarv. The north and east boundaries are formed by the intersection of the sand top with the water-oil contact which occurs at approximately 2.440 ft subsea. An original gas-oil contact probably existed at about 1.875 ft subsea. Fig. 1 presents the latest structural interpretation of the pool. and Fig. 2 is an isopach map showing thickness of the total Parinas formation above the original water-oil contact. The heavy lints of Fig. 1 are contours on the sand top, and the fine lines are contours on the fault planes. This type of straight-line structural map was developed 1)) International's geologists to reflect structural conditions where the bedding planes dip and have no curvature. 'The La Brea-Parinas Concession is highly faulted by normal fault.. The beds are flat wherever exposed. The Parinas formation is approximately 635 ft thick. and it is etimated that 62 percent II the formation is effective sand. The original oil zone was about 565 ft thick. Fig. 211 presents an electric log showing typical Parinas sand development ill Mile Six pool. The Parinas band in Mile Six i. a well-sorted. medium- to-coal-se-grained. cross-bedded sand with minor lenses of shale and small lenses and pockets of pebble conglomerate. The sand grains are subangular to rounded and consist chiefly of quartz with feldspars. biotite hornblende, and augite as accessory minerals. Because of faulting of the Parinas- formation to the east and north of the pool. there is probably l possibility of a significant, natural water drive in Mile six. The faults within the pool. as indicated in Figs. 1 and 2. are of smaller disI,laceInent and seem to act only , partial barriers to fluid movement within the reservoir. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS Core analysis data are available from five wells. The data were obtained from three wells (Nos. 3401. 3586 and 3719) at the time of their completion and from well 1996 when the original liner was sidetracked and the well was deepened ill 1946. Data from well 2779 were obtained in 1943 from old cores taken when the well was deepened in 1934. From these core analyses. the average porosity was estimated to be 22.6 per cent. and the average permeability to dry ail. was estimated to be 780 and Measured productility indices varied from 3.1 to 71.4 B/D per psi differential. Specific productivity indices varied approximately from 0.1 to 0.3 B./D per psi per ft of sand.

Jan 1, 1953

Engineering Experiment Station, Kansas State College, Manhattan, Kansas. For publications or a list of publications, address the above Of the 29 Bulletins issued by the Engineering Experiment Station, a few on cement and road-building materials may well be listed here: Bulletin 12, Road materials of Kansas; 15, Tests of Kansas road materials, 17, Some strength characteristics of portland cement; 25, Volume change of concrete, 26, A study of fourteen brands of standard portland cement and four early-strength concretes, 28, The durability of concrete, 29, The effect of aggregate and other variables on the elastic properties of concrete

Jan 1, 1933

THE twelfth annual meeting of the American Asso-ciation of Petroleum Geologists will be held in Tulsa, Okla., on March 24 to 26, at the Mayo Hotel. The per-sonnel of the committee on arrangements for this meet-ing is as follows : Chairman, M. M. Valerius ; finance, J. H. Gardner; program, Sidney Powers,; publicity, Luther H. White; reception, L. G. Welsh; registration, Frank A. Herald; exhibits, Frank C. Greene; entertain¬ment, Harry H. Nowlan ; ladies' entertainment, T. E. Weirich; golf tournament, A. L. Beekly; hotels, G. C. Potter; transportation, A. W. Duston; banquet, R. Hughes; decoration, V. H. Hughes.

Jan 2, 1927

By R. V. Norris

The great coal strike of 1902, which confined the work at the Short Mountain colliery of the Lykens Valley Coal Com pany almost exclusively to pumping, gave an opportunity to determine with considerable accuracy the cost of pumping the water from these very old, extensive and wet mines. This colliery, which is located in the extreme southwestern end of the anthracite coal-field, has been operated continuously since 1836, and has shipped 7,747,313 tons of coal. This and the Williamstown colliery are the only operations in Dauphin county. The workings cover about 5 miles along the North dip of the extreme westerly end of the basin, with the operating slopes near the center. They extend around the westerly spoon of the basin and back about 31/4 miles easterly on the South dip. The mines are very deep, the present workings ex tending to 711 ft. below sea-level, and about 1600 ft. below the lowest surface-opening. The coal is hoisted principally from the Short Mountain slope, which is 1550 ft. long, with 26 to 68 degrees dip, and from an inside slope, No. 4, 800 ft. long, with 52 to 72 degrees dip. The ordinary capacity of the colliery is about 1000 tons per day, and the average output for the years 1897 to 1901, in clusive, was 297,000 tons per year. The seams worked are the lowest Red Ash measures, being, respectively, Nos. I, II and III of the coal-bed series, but locally called the " Little Lykens," " Lykens," and " Whites." On the accompanying plan the Lykens seam is shown in full and the Whites in dotted lines. The pumping-plant is divided into four lifts, the pumps being located as shown in the section, Fig. 1, and the plan, Fig. 2.

Jan 1, 1904

By AIME AIME

MODERN metallurgy is an art and a science. The art is process metallurgy-extracting metals from their ores, refining them, and alloying them with one another and with certain nonmetals to produce thereby a variety of metallic materials which, owing to a wide range of useful properties, are for many purposes more valuable to man than the individual metals themselves; process metallurgy also includes shaping or otherwise treating metals and alloys to form objects useful to a complex industrial world. The science is physical metallurgy-organized knowledge of the constitution and internal structure of metals and alloys, of the relation of their composition and structure to properties, and of the laws, theories, and hypotheses that purport to explain this relation.

Jan 1, 1942

W. S. GRESLEY, Erie, Pa.: Mr. Henrich's Fig. 1 and reference thereto remind me of a section of sand, gravel, clay, etc., which I sketched near Hellesylt on Stor Fjord, Norway, some years ago. Vertical Section of Glacial Morainic Material, containing Angular Masses of Banded Sand. Observed June 29, 1887, about 14 English miles south of Hellesylt, at head of Stor Fjord, near Aalesund, Norway. The accompanying figure reproduces my sketch. It was the angular and tilted blocks of sand in this glacial débris, or moraine, that particularly attracted my notice. The sand was moist; and I could only account for the phenomenon of blocks of sand

Jan 1, 1897

By N. S. Wagner

The production of lightweight aggregates in Oregon is a new industry, and, like all new enterprises, it is suffering from growing pains characterized by numerous, small operations some of which flourish for a short time and then cease altogether. Normally all industrial mineral products are produced in a highly competitive atmosphere. At the present time this condition does not exist to a very marked degree in the state because as yet producers have not saturated the constantly expanding market. This paper has been prepared with the intention of outlining very briefly the current status of the various products now being used as lightweight aggregates in Oregon. The present picture will surely change, perhaps quite radically within even a short space of time.

Jan 1, 1949

IN accordance with a programme arranged by a committee of the Institute, consisting of Mr. William P. Shinn, of St. Louis, chairman, and Mr. Joseph D. Weeks, of Pittsburgh, secretary, the member's of the Institute, with their ladies and invited guests, assembled in Chicago on Sunday morning, August 22d. A special train, provided by the Chicago and Northwestern Railway,. left Chicago on Monday morning at 7.50 o'clock, and conveyed the party to Marquette, arriving at 9 o'clock P.M. Here the steamer Northern Queen, which had been chartered by the committee for the accommodation of the Institute, was in waiting, and the members and ladies at once took up their quarters on the boat. EXCURSIONS IN THE MARQUETTE IRON REGION. Local Committee. EXECUTIVE. -J. C. Morse, chairman; C. Y. Osburn, secretary ; D. F. Wadsworth, treasurer; C. H. Hall, H. Merry. RECEPTION.-S. P. Ely, J. P. Pendill, E. Breitung, W. F. Swift, A. P. Swineford, J. C. Fowle, C. G. Griffey. TRANSPORTATION.-Samuel Schoch, D. Morgan, D. H.. Merritt, J. Pickands. FINANCE.-Peter White, A. W. Maitland, W D. Rees, E. R. Hall. EXCURSIONS.-W. E. Dickinson, H. A. Burt, A.. Kidder, C. E. Wright. REFRESHMENTS.-J. Q. Adams, H. H. Stafford, Joseph Kirkpatrick, D. H. Bacon. On Tuesday the iron mines in the vicinity of Negaunee and Ishpeming were visited, transportation being provided by special trains on the Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon Railroad. In the morning the McComber, South Jackson, and Jackson mines were inspected, and in the afternoon the Cleveland, New York, Lake Superior, and Barnum mines. Dinner was provided at Negaunee, and gracefully served by, the ladies of the town. In the evening the first session of the Institute was held in the saloon of the steamer. The President, William P. Shinn, of St. Louis, congratulated the Institute on the happy consummation of the wishes of its members to have a meeting on Lake Superior. After tedious and baffling negotiations arrangements had been com-

Jan 1, 1881

By AIME AIME

THE annual meeting of the Woman's Auxiliary to the A.I. M.E. is always held in New York, in con- junction with the annual meeting of the Institute in February. Business sessions, teas, dances, a theater party, luncheons, excursions, and many other interesting activities filled the four days to overflowing. In all ,216 women were present, from all parts of the United ,/ mates, and there were several from Canada. On Mon- ' day not only the visitors, but the New York members also, gathered around the registration desks, where Mrs. E. N. Wolfes, Mrs. S. J. Jennings, and Miss Georgene Davis saw that everyone was properly registered and provided with tickets to whatever functions she desired to attend. Greetings were eagerly ex- changed as friends met at the luncheon on the fifth floor, where the hostesses of the day were Mrs. J. D. Handy, Mrs. T. T. Read, Mrs. Sidney Rolle and Mrs. H. J. Wolf. In the afternoon, there were visits to art galleries and other interesting exhibits, arranged by Mrs. Frederick Laist. Mrs. W. H. Bassett was the hostess at a very delightful Thé damant at the Italian Gardens of the Ambassador Hotel. Many of the men attended this function also. In the evening the visiting ladies were entertained at a theater party, with Mrs. Wilbur Judson as hostess. The play that was seen was Gorki's "At. the Bottom."

Jan 1, 1930

By Charles Dorrance

Culm is a general term used in the anthracite regions for many years to denote a mixture of coal, bony coal and impurities which is sent to the refuse-banks. Thus, 35 years ago culm contained the pea and buckwheat sizes of anthracite; but to-day, and as mentioned in this paper, culm is used specifically to denote the material which passes through the smallest screen in the anthracite-breaker. The smallest size of commercial anthracite is known as No. 3 buckwheat, barley, or bird's-eye coal, and is ordinarily made through a round-punched plate having openings & in. in diameter, and over a round-punched plate with openings 3/32 in. or 1/16 in. in diameter. Thus culm will consist of coal, bony coal, slate, gravel, iron pyrite, etc., ranging in size from 3/32 in. down to dust. Other local terms for culm are " slush," " silt," and " dirt." The first experiments towards the utilization of anthracite culm by briquetting, and the first briquetting-work done in this country, were in 1872 at Port Richmond Piers, Philadelphia, Pa., by E. F. Loiseau.1 Clay was used as a binder and the finished briquette was water-proofed with shellac, etc. Excessive cost was given as the reason for discontinuing work at this plant.

Jan 1, 1912

By SIDNEY ROLLE

ACURSORY glance through the literature on the subject reveals that the ablest minds in the land are devoting themselves to the great question of labor, of which employment is one of the fundamentals. Volumes have been written and the end is not in sight. Employment management is today about in the position that efficiency was 15 years ago. During the early days of the war, and perhaps for a year or so before, labor was plentiful. As the war progressed and Europe drew on us for munitions, employers began to compete with one another for', all, classes of labor. Labor was difficult to obtain, wages rose, the labor turnover increased, and employers began to install employment departments, welfare plans, and all sorts of schemes, but the labor efficiency dropped. As the war progressed, greater and greater production was demanded. New factors were introduced each day. The government, labor unions, industrial councils, all tended, it seemed, to make the situation almost intolerable. Wages rose to fantastic heights, the cost of living rose higher and higher, and the efficiency dropped still further.

Jan 1, 1921