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A stronger U.S. economy stimulated the domestic mineral sector in 1994. Metals demand was spurred by robust U.S. motor vehicle sales, while demand for major industrial minerals rose in response to highway and building construction. Domestic mineral and material demand is expected to increase in 1995, particularly if interest rates do not restrain the building industry and international monetary exchange rates remain advantageous to U.S. automobile manufacturers. Additional information on events, trends, and issues in the mineral and material sector is presented below and in the commodity sections that follow. Overall Performance Processed materials of mineral origin produced in the United States during 1994 increased to an estimated value of $360 billion. Domestic output of raw nonfuel minerals in 1994 was estimated at $34 billion, about 6% more than that of 1993. The value of U.S. minerals production has increased in 29 of the last 34 years.

Jan 1, 1995

By C. G. Maier

The fundamental chemistry of zinc smelting, especially that part dealing with the chemical reduction of the zinc-oxide content of a roasted zinc ore, has been discussed by metallurgists in some detail, but, in the light of present knowledge, unsatisfactorily. A considerable portion of the information available has been qualitative, or quantitative in a sense that could not be interpreted chemically. A number of attempts to elucidate the physical chemistry of zinc oxide reduction have been based upon unsubstantiated and, as is now known, incorrect equilibrium data. To write upon the chemistry of zinc smelting at this time, when electrolytic methods for the production of zinc metal from ore are becoming increasingly widespread, may seem a belated effort. So, for example, C. A. Hansen,3 in the communicated discussion of an article by the author,4 writes as follows:

Jan 1, 1930

By Boyd Guthrie

As the American petroleum industry surveyed its position in early 1937, it had many reasons to be optimistic concerning its future. The industry had emerged successfully from the depression, and for the first time since 1929 it had produced over one billion barrels of crude oil in a single year. The demand for gasoline and fuel oils was up, and reserves of crude petroleum and production capacity seemed adequate for the future. Although production of crude oil dropped slightly in 1938, the oil industry was still in a good position with respect to its supply of raw material, which improved economically in 1939 with the decrease of crude-oil stocks in storage above ground. However, by 1940 a threatening cloud (the invasion of France and its rapid surrender) had appeared on the horizon. This aroused Somme fears as to the industry's immediate future, and these fears were intensified the following year when the United States entered World War II. As the war progressed, more and more ships, planes, and vehicles were produced, and the problem of obtaining enough liquid fuels to supply them intensified. Hearings were held in August 1943 before a subcommittee of the Committee on Public Lands and Surveys of the 78th Congress to determine the advisability of passing legislation to promote the development of synthetic liquid fuels.

Jan 1, 1951

By F. Fraas

ELECTROSTATIC methods are used to separate and concentrate or purify granular particles derived from ores or various synthetic and agricultural products. Compared with other separation methods that require many technological refinements, the electrostatic attraction of fibers, grass, and seeds to charged surfaces clan be accomplished under the most primitive circumstances, and the early development of this method of beneficiation seemed very promising. Precise application of the method to provide high selectivity, however, is a complex procedure, and interest in this method declined. During this period Mr. O. C. Ralston initiated a Bureau of Mines research program oil electrostatic separation. It is the purpose of thins publication to describe the development of the electrostatic method of particle separation from the early beginning to the present resurgence of interest. Most of the information for this description bas been derived from references, a few of which were not available for thorough review. Much information has been drawn from the investitions of the Bureau. Acknowledgments Mr. O. C. Ralston, former Chief metallurgist of the Bureau of Mines, began the research program on the subject and did research on the mils literature. Both Mr. Ralston and Mr. H. B. Johnson, former president of the Huff Electrostatic Separator Co., furnished patent references. A critical review by Mr. F. D. Lamb, Research director, and Mr. M. J. Spendlove, Supervisory metallurgist, Bureau of Mines, College Park Metallurgy Research Center, lifts been of much value in preparing this report.

Jan 1, 1962

By W. L. EGY, GEORGES. RICE, L. M. JONES, J. K. CLEMENT

This report has been prepared, not only for the purpose of recording the results of the first series of coal-dust tests conducted in the experimental mine of the Bureau of Mines, but also to place before the mining public a description of the mine and an account of the objects sought in its establishment. Soon after the organization of the technologic branch of the United States Geological Survey, J. A. Holmes, then chief of the branch, concluded that for the solution of various problems relating to the causes and prevention of mine explosions it would be best to carry on large-scale tests in a mine rather than in a surface gallery. The idea of utilizing the underground passage of a mine for making explosion experiments did not at' first meet with general approval among investigators in this country or abroad. Many thought a mine passage was not a proper place in which scientific tests could be conducted, as great difficulty in controlling conditions was expected. However, after all arguments for and against such an investigation had been carefully considered, plans for opening an experimental mine were definitely adopted by the Bureau of Mines in 1910, and an allotment of funds was made to carry out the project. The first endeavor was to find an existing mine suitable for the purpose, but the mines offered by owners were either worked out, were wet, had poor roofs, or presented complications of various kinds, so that it was finally decided to open a mine if a site could be obtained having natural conditions that would fill the various requirements. A most desirable location was found on property of the Pittsburgh Coal Co., near Bruceton, Pa. The president of this company, Mr. W. K. Field, the general manager, Mr. G. W. Schluederberg, and the chief engineer, Mr. E. J. Taylor, rendered every possible service in

Jan 1, 1913

By A. D. McMahon

This survey is one of a series of Bureau of Mines publications designed to serve the needs of Government and industry for comprehensive information on mineral commodities and activities. Copper, a versatile metal, has been vital to all civilizations from prehistoric times to the present. Its essential value in antiquity and until the nineteenth century arose from its malleability and ease of working, its corrosion resistance and durability', its attractive colors in alloyed and unalloyed forms, and, of course, its availability. The principal uses were for tools, utensils, vessels, weapons, pipe, statuary and other objects of art, and for building and architectural pur£~ses where formability, permanence, and beaut)" were necessary qualities. Utilization of copper based on these physical and mechanical properties has grown tremendously for commercial, structural, mechanical, architectural, and art items; and its capacity for forming numerous alloys has led to a myriad of applications from miniature copper and brass eyelets to huge bronze battleship propellers. The early nineteenth century marks the epoch of the greatest use of copper, transmitting electrical energy. This particular property of copper is fundamental to the spectacular growth of the electrical industry and all associated industries relying on electricity for power, light, and heat. More than half of all copper produced is used for transmission of electricity. The copper industry has been able to expand along with the mounting demand because of the ever increasing discovery of resources in the world and advances in mining, metallurgical, and fabricating technologies. World production and consumption rose progressively from about 18,000 tons in 1800 to more than 4.5 million tons in 1960. The estimated world reserve of primary- copper has more than doubled since 1935, being 212 million tons in 1960. Ninety percent of this reserve is credited to eight countries-the United States, Canada, Chile, Peru, the Soviet Union, Poland, Northern Rhodesia, and the Republic of the Congo. The United States share is 32.5 million tons of copper in ore, averaging approximately 0.9 percent. Another reserve being accumulated in the industrial countries of the world is copper products now in use that will eventually be discarded as scrap and become available for recovering secondary copper. In the United States this resource of more than 30 million tons, provides about one-fourth of the annual supply.

Jan 1, 1965

By Bernard Lewis

This report summarizes the fundamental research and technical studies conducted by the Explosives Branch of the Bureau of Mines from July 1, 1943, to June 30, 1949. It is the thirteenth of a series of annual reports, which have aimed to bring to the reader a resume of the research results that have appeared in published form during each fiscal year. The work of the Explosives Branch covers a number of activities - explosives research, explosives testing, flame and combustion research, flammability of gases and vapors, dust-explosions research, and technical studies in the experimental mine. An important part of the work of the branch is fundamental research to advance our knowledge and understanding of explosion processes. Considerable emphasis has been placed on studies of ignition and flame stabilization, as it is felt that an understanding of these processes should assist materially in alleviating explosion hazards in coal mines. The results are also finding important application in the development of jet propulsion. Studies of the explosibility of gases, vapors, and dusts saving thousands of lives and are preventing the destruction of much property. In innumerable instances in which potential explosion hazards exist, safe operating procedures have been recommended from data taken in the Laboratory. Aware of the value to national security of research results of combustion, flame, and explosion, the Army, Navy, and Air Forces are actively supporting important phases of this fundamental research.

Jan 1, 1950

By Bernard Lewis

This report summarizes fundamental research end technical studies conducted in the Explosives and Physical Sciences Division, Region VIII, of the Bureau of Mines in the 2 years July l, 1950, to June 30, 1952. It is the fifteenth of a series of, ordinarily, annual reports whose aim has been to provide the reader with a resume of the research results that have appeared in published form during each fiscal year under the authorship of members of the staff. These are referred to throughout the report. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgments art, made to the following members of the Division wider whose mediate supervision the described studies were carried out. Stuart R. Brinkley, Jr., chief, Mathematical and Theoretical Physics Section, and special assistant to the chief of the division.

Jan 1, 1953

The objective of this handbook is to provide the inspector with guidance for recognizing hazards from inhalation contaminants in above ground work areas of underground and surface metal and nonmetal mining and processing facilities and evaluating these hazards by collecting samples or making field determinations and interpreting the analytical results. Portions of the handbook that should prove most useful to the inspectors include a survey check list, rules for determining if sampling is required, list of most frequently encountered contaminants, list of candidate contaminants and their sampling conditions, interpretation of results, and a procedure for a health and safety inspection.

Jan 1, 2011

By Keith L. Harris

Recent data indicate a marginal decline in overall growth in world economic output from 3.1% in 1985 to 2.9% in 1986 (table 1),2, 3 Many nations experienced slower economic growth because of the huge trade imbalances existing between the United [ ] States and Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany, the U.S. budget deficit, and the growing Third World debt. Some developing nations, however, experienced booming growth. Declining prices for energy and nonenergy commodities and the fall of the dollar against the currencies of major industrial countries benefited several developing countries--energy importers and exporters of manufactured goods with currencies tied to the U.S. dollar, which were able to expand markets in the industrialized nations. The drop in commodity prices increased demand in industrial countries and depressed it in developing countries. Lower demand in the developing countries contributed to a decline in the real net exports from industrial countries. As a result, output growth in industrial countries declined from 3.0% in 1985 to 2.4% in 1986, despite growing internal demand, Average output growth of developing countries increased from 3.296 to 3.596 during the same period, however, primarily because of the low prices of their products and the strength of demand in industrial countries for those products. Developed country output growth was extremely uneven, however. For example, the economic output of nonfuel exporters grew 5.4% in 1986, while that of fuel exporters dropped 0.7%.

Jan 1, 1987

By Robert G. Bottge

The Bureau of Mines investigated the availability of the land in south-central Alaska for exploration and mineral development of locatable minerals under State or Federal laws. The land ownership for an area of nearly 72.5 million acres in south-central Alaska was divided into 3 availability categories and 15 subcategories. In July 1985, 31.0 million acres of the study area were available for mineral exploration and development, 6.2 million acres were available with restrictions, and 35.3 million acres were unavailable. About 23.6 million acres in the study area are underlain by mineral terranes. About 9.9 million of the 23.6 million acres are available for mineral entry, 2.4 million acres are available with restrictions, and 11.3 million acres are unavailable. While much of the land currently classified as unavailable will be reclassified once it is conveyed to the State or to Native corporations, about 22% of the unavailable lands underlain by mineral terranes are now Federal parks, preserves, wildlife refuges, wild and scenic rivers, and military lands, all of which are considered permanently unavailable for mineral exploration and development.

Jan 1, 1986

By Henry Kreisinger

Some of the investigations conducted by the Bureau of Mines have for their object the collecting and disseminating of information regarding methods by which the fuels of the country may be most efficiently used. As the analysis of flue gases tends to develop better methods of firing, which in turn reduces waste of fuel, the Bureau of Mines in this bulletin presents for the benefit of those in charge of boiler plants and all other persons interested detailed information on methods of sampling and analyzing flue gases, and on the utilization of the analyses in promoting boiler-room economy. This bulletin is intended to be a companion to Technical Paper 80,a and is written in plain and nontechnical language, as far as possible, so that it may be readily understood by persons who have not had the advantage of a technical education. Whenever possible, illustrations of apparatus and methods of handling have been used rather than elaborate descriptions.

Jan 1, 1915

By Paul C. Hyndman

The U.S. Bureau of Mines inventoried Federal mineral lands in Idaho and classified them in detail, section by section, according to their availability for mineral exploration and development as affected by legal restrictions and agencies' management practices. The Bureau also identified known mineral deposit areas (KMDAs) and areas conducive to oil, gas, and geothermal resources. This information is shown on maps (developed in part by geographic information system technology) that spatially compare the availability for mineral entry of Federal land with these KMDAs to demonstrate the extent and severity of restrictions on mineral entry. Idaho contains 53.1 million acres, 35.7 million (67%) of which is Federal mineral land. About 7 million acres of this land is within KMDAs that host medium-to high-value locatable mineral deposits; 36% of this land is available, 27% is slightly to moderately restricted, and 37% is severely restricted or unavailable. For the leasable minerals, about 1.8 million acres are within KMDAs that host medium-to high-value phosphate deposits, about 5.4 million acres are favorable for oil and gas resources, and 3.9 million acres for geothermal resources. The percentages of land availability are 30%, 45%, and 25% for the phosphate acreage, 38%, 34%, and 28% for the oil and gas acreage, and 43%, 30%, and 27% for the geothermal acreage.

Jan 1, 2012

On November 9, the Reynolds Metals Company cut production by 12 at its primary aluminum smelters at Troutdale, Oreg., and Longview, Wash., as a result of an earlier 25% power cutback by the Bonneville Power Administration due to lower than normal stream flow in September, the Aluminum Company of America had closed one potline at its Vancouver smelter because of the power cutback. Nearly 700 union workers at Anaconda Aluminum Company's primary aluminum smelter at Sebree, Ky., walked off the job when their contract expired or, November 15, after rejecting a proposed 3-year contract. The smelter has an annual capacity of 180,000 tons mid accounts for 50% of Anaconda's aluminum production. No talks are scheduled.

Jan 1, 1979

By Donald Christofferson

This report documents the program conducted to demonstrate the application of a flywheel-powered propulsion system to underground mining shuttle cars. Such application can replace the present electrical trailing cable common to most shuttle cars and thereby eliminate those safety hazards, maintenance problems, and haulage route limitations inherent in the trailing cable. Described are the activities undertaken to specify and design a flywheel of optimum size, shape, and material; to identify the best concepts of input and output systems; and to achieve installation of the power package into a shuttle car. The resultant Flywheel-Powered Shuttle Car is an FMC Model 6L shuttle car, 6-ton capacity, 20-ton gross vehicle weight, powered by a flywheel system with 4.5-kilowatt-hour usable energy. The completed vehicle was delivered to the Bureau of Mines in Bruceton, Pennsylvania, for testing and evaluation.

Jan 1, 1986

By Shigeru Tsutsumi

The rapid development of transportation facilities in Japan focused the attention of this country on the possibility of converting the existing coal resources (of which there was an abundance) into liquid fuels, for which there was a constantly increasing demand. Previous work had indicated that this could be accomplished by utilizing one of two processes - the Bergius process, in which high temperatures and high pressures were employed to effect direct liquefaction of the coal, and the Fischer-Tropsch process, in which an indirect liquefaction of coal was accomplished by the production of liquid hydro-carbons from hydrogen-carbon monoxide mixtures. This report describes some investigations into the latter process, which was first developed by Fischer and his colleagues in the Coal Laboratory in Muhlheim, Germany, in 1923. By 1932, these investigators had achieved a 60-percent theoretical yield (152 ml. of liquid hydrocarbons per cubic meter of 2H2:ICO synthesis gas) by using a precipitated Co-Th02 catalyst.3/ At the same time (1932), Dr. Kita of Kyoto Imperial University and Messrs. Fujimura and Tsuneoka obtained 145 ml. of gasoline (C5+) per cubic meter of synthetic gas by using a Co-Cu-Th-U catalyst. 4/ This report is a description of the experimental results subsequently obtained at the Fuel Research Institute, Kawaguchi City, Saitama, up to 1935.

Jan 1, 1951

These proceedings consist of papers presented at three Bureau of Mines Technology Transfer Seminars on ergonomics in the mining industry. These seminars were held in December 1981, and covered topics relating to ergonomics and mining in the areas of the man-machine interface, and design of the work environment. This area of research is directed toward reducing accidents traditionally associated with human error.

Jan 1, 1981

By Ernest A. Hersam

"INTRODUCTION.Luring the year 1923 a complete survey was made of the condition of research in the reduction (milling) and concentration of ores and nonmetallic minerals - that is, up to the stage where the ores or concentrates were ready for hydro- or pyro-metallurgical treatment. This survey was carried on under the general supervision of L. A. Lyon, assistant director and chief metallurgist of the Bureau of mines, in cooperation with the milling committee of the American Institute of mining and metallurgical Engineers, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of California. Other institutions, including the National Research council, were of assistance and outlined recommendations during the study.While this report is on ""ore dressing"", it contains short sections on coal and clay. The mechanical handling that these minerals undergo is ""dressing"", so that ore dressing is inclusive of metallic and nonmetallic minerals. ""milling"", in its broadest sense, includes with ore dressing certain other metallurgical treatment which the report is not designed to cover.The survey revealed that considerable experimentation is being carried on great cost to the mining industry, but that the research is in general poorly coordinated while companies and firms are adequately taking care of routine tests and the mechanical features involved in their own operations, no comprehensive study of the fundamental principles of ore reduction is now in progress or contemplated. Many industries, besides mining, are interested in the preparation of materials for final treatment, rendering this investigation of value also to them. This class of fundamental research is neglected by industry unless there is some agency which can bring together at least a majority of this interested in a cooperative effort. It can not be effectively handled by a single company; and, moreover, no company can be expected to bear the whole burden of an investigation to benefit the entire industry or a number of industries hence there is need for concerted study within reasonable limits. Furthermore, co-operation eliminates duplication, which is largely a waste of effort and capital."

Mar 1, 1925

Mercury has been used by mankind since prehistoric times. It has been, and is now, widely used in industry and medicine and has unique properties which make direct substitution difficult or impossible. At present its principal uses are for electrical apparatus, control instruments, electrolytic soda preparation, mildew-proofing paints, pesticides, and medical and dental preparations. Deposits of mercury are less common than those of other base and precious metals, but some of the deposits are very large and have been ample to meet the world's past demands. The price of mercury has had many sharp fluctuations, but in general, the limited number of producers has resulted in a more stable price structure than that of many other commodities. The United States has been one of the main producers of mercury, and from 1850 to 1961 produced 3,247,704 flasks. Yearly production since World War II has varied from 4,535 to 38,067 flasks. An estimate of domestic resources of mercury producible at various price ranges was prepared for each mercury mine by combining specific knowledge of mercury mineralization with estimates of potential, based on geologic information and past production history. The sum of the individual estimates for each price range is shown in a table. A parallel estimate of nationwide production potential was made from a study of past price and production relationships. These were analyzed by plotting yearly production figures against the previous year's price, expressed in dollars of constant purchasing power. An equation was fitted to the data by mathematical means and was used to extend the curve into areas of higher than historic prices. Potential production rates at various price levels were taken from this graph. The estimated yearly production rates were used to make an estimate of total potential based on the premise that production rates and reserves have a proportionate relationship. The rate of developing mercury reserves during the period from January 1944 to January 1962 is considered, and it is shown that if this rate can be continued, the mercury resources of the United States, at a constant dollar price of $500 per flask, are adequate to support a production of 60,000 flasks per year for 30 or more years. This publication contains a history and description of the mercury industry in every State which has had production and individual descriptions of all mercury properties which have reported significant production. Accompanying tables give the important facts about all known mercury occurrences.

Jan 1, 1965

Mercury has been used by mankind since prehistoric times. It has been, and is now, widely used in industry and medicine and has unique properties which make direct substitution difficult or impossible. At present its principal uses are for electrical apparatus, control instruments, electrolytic soda preparation, mildew-proofing paints, pesticides, and medical and dental preparations. Deposits of mercury are less common than those of other base and precious metals, but some of the deposits are very large and have been ample to meet the world's past demands. The price of mercury has had many sharp fluctuations, but in general, the limited number of producers has resulted in a more stable price structure than that of many other commodities. The United States has been one of the main producers of mercury, and from 1850 to 1961 produced 3,247,704 flasks. Yearly production since World War I1 has varied from 4,535 to 38,067 flasks. An estimate of domestic resources of mercury producible at various price ranges was prepared for each mercury mine by combining specific knowledge of mercury mineralization with estimates of potential, based on geologic information and past production history. The sum of the individual estimates for each price range is shown in a table. A parallel estimate of nationwide production potential was made from a study of past price and production relationships. These were analyzed by plotting yearly production figures against the previous year's price, expressed in dollars of constant purchasing power. An equation was fitted to the data by mathematical means and was used to extend the curve into areas of higher than historic prices. Potential production rates at various price levels were taken from this graph. The estimated yearly production rates were used to make an estimate of total potential based on the premise that production rates and reserves have a proportionate relationship. The rate of developing mercury reserves during the period from January 1944 to January 1962 is considered, and it is shown that if this rate can be continued, the mercury resources of the United States, at a constant dollar price of $500 per flask, are adequate to support a production of 60,000 flasks per year for 30 or more years. This publication contains a history and description of the mercury industry in every State which has had production and individual descriptions of all mercury properties which have reported significant production. Accompanying tables give the important facts about all known mercury occurrences.

Jan 1, 1965