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By Benjamin Smith Lyman

THE importance of topography to geology is so commonly underrated as to deserve to be pointed out again and again. The relation of topography to the different branches of geology may be seen best by a glance at them all. Geology is well understood to consist of the observation of facts about rocks as materials of the earth (geognosy), and the explanation of those facts (geognosy). The facts to observe are : I. GEOMETRICAL, as (1) structure, including the dip and strike at different points, the size, shape, and position of basins and saddles; (2) vertical section, that is, the thickness of rock groups and of their parts ; (3) horizontal or geographical position. 11. PHYSICAL, such as texture, whether sedimentary or crystalline ; and, if crystalline, whether granitic, porphyritic, amygdaloidal, globular, or concretionary ; whether compact or granular; coarse or fine; pervious or impervious; hard or soft; firm or tender; with cleavage or without ; massive or thin ; the microscopic structure ; also whether magnetic or not ; soluble or insoluble ; fusible or infusible ; and the constituent minerals. 111. CHEMICAL that is, the composition of the rocks and of their minerals and their affinities. IV. PALAENTOLOGICAL, as what kind of fossils are in the rocks,

By J. Noll

Many underground metal/nonmetal mines are using enclosed cabs on mining equipment to reduce the exposure of miners to diesel particulate matter (DPM). However, some enclosed cab systems may not be meeting their expected efficiency in capturing DPM, which could be a result of inappropriate filter use, cab leaks, or insufficient pressurization. NIOSH investigated several types of filters for reducing DPM to determine which type had the best capture efficiency. The laboratory results indicated that a MERV 8 (Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value, as defined by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Conditioning Engineers) filter captured about 50 percent of the DPM, a MERV 16 filter collected 96-98 percent of the DPM, and two HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) grade filters captured over 99 percent of the DPM. NIOSH also performed a field study to measure the efficiency of two cabs at a limestone mine. The cab filtration systems of a loader and haul truck were found to be over 90 percent effective in removing DPM except under certain operating conditions when the efficiency was as low as 41 percent. Evidence seems to suggest that these conditions were when a window was open in the cab.

Jan 1, 2011

By Olman Hee

This study investigates the identity and relative importance of factors affecting the future demand for phosphate rock, potash, and nitrogen. The main objective is to analyze demand relationships for these chemical raw materials for some specified past period, and to utilize this information to make projections of consumption into some designated future period. The end-use approach is used, which divides total consumption of each chemical raw material into agricultural, industrial, and export use. Multiple regression analysis is employed to statistically measure the relative effects of the different factors on consumption in each end use. The general method centers on the construction of a consumer demand model, the fitting of the respective equations in the model, and the interpretation of the statistical results. Direct and cross price elasticities of demand are computed for each end use of the chemical raw materials. These give an insight into expected changes in consumption with respect to given changes in price. The results of this study indicate that price, consumer income, and level of technology are factors which measurably affect consumption of chemical raw materials. For phosphate rock and potash, the agricultural and industrial end uses showed an inelastic demand, whereas for nitrogen, all end uses (including export use) exhibited an elastic demand. Among the chemical raw materials, average annual growth of consumption of nitrogen for agricultural and export uses to 1980 is expected to be notably higher than that for phosphate rock and potash.

Jan 1, 1969

More than 100,000 people are expected to be in Las Vegas, NV in March for ConExpo-Con/Agg 2002, the largest exhibit of its kind in the Western Hemisphere. This triennial event features equipment, services and technical sessions geared toward the global construction aggregates and ready mix concrete industries. ConExpo-Con/Agg 2002 will take place March 19-25, 2002 at the Las Vegas Convention Center. For registration information, contact the show offices, phone 800-867-6060, 414-298-4141, or 301-587-3140, Website www.conexpoconagg.com.

Jan 1, 2002

This Bureau of Mines report and its companion report (Information Circular 9143) have been prepared to assist in the preparation of prefeasibility type estimates for capital and operating costs of mining of various types of mineral occurrences using current technology. The handbook provides a convenient costing procedure based on the summation of the casts for the unit processes required in any particular mining or mineral processing operation. The costing handbook consists of a series of costing sections, each corresponding to a specific mining unit process. Contained within each section is the methodology to estimate either the capital or operating cost for that unit process. The unit process sections may be used to generate, in January 1984 dollars, costs through the use of either costing curves or formulae representing the prevailing technology. Coverage for surface mining includes dredging, quarrying, strip mining, and open pit mining. The underground mining includes individual development sections for drifting, raising, shaft sinking, stope development, various mining methods, underground mine haulage, general plant, and underground mine administrative cost. This system can be used for estimating cost data for an undeveloped deposit or for checking or verifying mining costs from a developed deposit, with a minimum amount of background information.

Jan 1, 1987

By Kerry Gee, Gary Colgan, James Fricke

Introduction Elevated zinc concentrations are observed in groundwater within alluvium adjacent to Silver Creek east of Park City, Utah. The study area is located in a small valley one and one-half miles northeast of Park City, Utah in Summit County, Utah (Figure 1). Although surface water concentrations in Silver Creek are typically less than 1 mg/l, groundwater concentrations have been measured as high as 85 mg/l in a near neutral pH environment. The elevated zinc concentrations in groundwater result from several factors including: (1) dissolution of zinc from tailings exposed at the surface and within the alluvium, (2) oxidizing conditions created by surface/ground-water exchange, and (3) ideal geochemical conditions for the dissolution of zinc-containing minerals. These ideal conditions include readily soluble minerals, available anions for complexation, and lack of available surface adsorption sites.

Jan 1, 2005

By R. Sankey, L. Gatty, F. Bizzozero, G. F. Shannon, F. Savaglio, L. McDonald

State mining regulations in Queensland stipulate that a mine be provided with an earth installed on surface and that all underground equipment that needs to be earthed should be connected via a copper conductor to this surface grounding point. The regulations further require that all exposed metal surfaces in underground substations be connected to an earth. In a study of earthing conditions at Mount Isa mine it was found that the physical anchoring of metal work at substations (with rockbolts and associated steel mesh) also provides an excellent electrical connection to the country rock. It was established that not only is the mine's earthing system grounded at numerous underground locations but also that such anchor points offer, in general, a path to ground with lower resistance than does the legally required grounding point on the surface. It is recommended that metalliferous mines should utilise a multiple-earth system and not a run earth connected to a single, above-ground earth point

May 1, 1991

By Gaudin. A. M., S. C. Sun

THIS paper presents the results of a study of the relationship of the electrokinetic or zeta potential to flotation phenomena. The relationship is established on the experimental evidence that mineral behavior in flotation and in cataphoresis is generally governed by the chemical properties and amount of the reagents adsorbed at mineral surfaces. Cataphoresis1-5 or electrophoresis is the name given to the movement of a charged particle in a liquid medium under the influence of an applied electric field. Mineral behavior in cataphoresis, as indicated by the magnitude and sign of its ionic charge, can be represented by the term zeta potential. In this paper, the zeta potential represents the difference in potential between the immovable liquid layer attached to the surface of a solid particle and the movable liquid layer in the body of the liquid, and is the result of the tendency of ions on the surface of the particle and within the liquid boundary layer to establish a condition of equilibrium. A high positive zeta potential means that the mineral surface is dominated by cations, a high negative zeta potential indicates domination by anions, and a low zeta potential indicates that the surface is influenced almost equally by cations and anions. In terms of observed quantities the zeta potential is given by the relation [z = 47ruu(300)$ Kx] in which z is the zeta potential expressed in in volts, u the viscosity of the solution in poises, u the velocity of particles in centimeters per second, x the impressed potential gradient in volts per centimeter, and k the dielectric constant of the solution in c.g.s. units. A convenient source for the derivation of the equation is the book by Thomas,6 The term zeta coefficient is an expression coined to denote the difference between the magnitude of the zeta potential of a mineral suspended in solution A, and that of the same mineral suspended in solution B, which consists of solution A and an additional chemical agent, but is at the same pH. For example, the difference between the zeta potential of galena particles in distilled water and that in any chemical solution at the same pH is a zeta coefficient. Or, when the zeta potential of a mineral particle is measured first in distilled water, then in a mixture of water and copper sulphate, and finally in a mix-

Jan 1, 1946

By Eggleton R. A

X-ray diffraction techniques are commonly used in the identification and quantification of fine-grained materials. A relationship exists between the size of crystals in a sample and the degree to which they diffract X-rays. The Scherrer equation relates the broadness of diffraction peaks to the size of crystals responsible for diffraction (Klug and Alexander, 1974). Relatively large crystals of the order of I - 10 ¦m strongly diffract X-rays; the diffractogram of such crystals exhibit narrow intense peaks. As the size of the crystals in a sample is reduced, diffraction peaks become broader and less intense. Crystals less than 10 nm generally exhibit broad, diffuse and low intensity peaks. Some material is so fine-grained and poorly-diffracting that X-ray patterns show very little information in a normal one-hour scan thereby necessitating very long acquisition times of up to 12 hours. The term poorly-diffracting material (PDM) was coined for such material found within the bauxite deposit of Weipa, northern Queensland (Tilley and Eggleton, 1994; 1996). Common regolith minerals such as hematite, goethite and layer silicate clays are quite commonly fine enough to possess a poorly-diffracting character. Noncrystalline and poorly crystalline Fe-Si-Al-oxyhydroxides such as allophane, opal, ferrihydrite and hisingerite, have either a nondiffracting (amorphous) or poorly-diffracting nature (Eggleton, 1987).

Jan 1, 1997

By Erik Westman, BEN WESTON, SETAREH GHAYCHI AFROUZ, KATHRYN DEHN

This study investigates the changes in seismic velocity of rockmass before and after three major seismic events to determine any potential identifiable precursory velocity changes associated with these events. Induced stress measurement is one of the challenging tasks in deep underground mining, with extreme impacts on the safety and stability of the mine. This study used p-wave passive seismic tomography to image the velocity redistribution within a rockmass, which can indicate induced stress level changes in the rockmass and detect the velocity changes that might precede a major seismic event or a rockburst. The ultimate goal of this research focus is to develop another tool for the deep-mining community that will help to increase safety and efficiency. For this purpose, the hypothesis of conventional mechanics, which implies induced stress at the hypocenter (as inferred by the p-wave velocity) increases until the seismic event occurs, is evaluated. It is found that the p-wave velocity did not increase at any of the three hypocenters prior to the seismic event occurring; however, the p-wave velocity did increase in the closest “zone center” for two of the three events. 

By S. C. Sun, A. M. Gaudin

This paper presents the results of a. study of the relationship of the electrokinetic or zeta potential to flotation phenomena. The relationship is established on the experimental evidence that mineral behavior in flotation and in cataphoresis is generally governed by the chemical properties and amount of the reagents adsorbed at mineral surfaces. Cataphoresisl-5 or electrophoresis is the name given to the movement of a charged particle in a liquid medium under the influence of an applied electric field. Mineral behavior in cataphoresis, as indicated by the magnitude and sign of its ionic charge, can be represented by the term zeta potential. In this paper, the zeta potential represents the difference in potential between the immovable liquid layer attached to the surface of a solid particle and the movable liquid layer in the body of the liquid, and is the result of the tendency of ions on the surface of the particle and within the liquid boundary layer to establish a condition of equilibrium. A high positive zeta potential means that the mineral surface is dominated by cations, a high negative zeta potential indicates domination by anions, and a low zeta potential indicates that the surface is influenced almost equally by cations and anions. In terms of observed quantities the zeta potential is given by the relation _ 4µ(300)² Z= kx in which z is the zeta potential expressed in in volts, µ the viscosity of the solution in poises, u the velocity of particles in centimeters per second, x the impressed potential gradient in volts per centimeter, and k the dielectric constant of the solution in c.g.s. units. A convenient source for the derivation of the equation is the book by Thomas. The term zeta coefficient is an expression coined to denote the difference between the magnitude of the zeta potential of a mineral suspended in solution A, and that of the same mineral suspended in solution B, which consists of solution A and an additional chemical agent, but is at the same pH. For example, the difference between the zeta potential of galena particles in distilled water and that in any chemical solution at the same pH is a zeta coefficient. Or, when the zeta potential of a mineral particle is measured first in distilled water, then in a mixture of water and copper sulphate, and finally in a mixture of water, copper sulphate and xan-thate, we can calculate the zeta coefficient

Jan 1, 1947

By A. M. Gaudin, S. C. Sun

This paper presents the results of a. study of the relationship of the electrokinetic or zeta potential to flotation phenomena. The relationship is established on the experimental evidence that mineral behavior in flotation and in cataphoresis is generally governed by the chemical properties and amount of the reagents adsorbed at mineral surfaces. Cataphoresisl-5 or electrophoresis is the name given to the movement of a charged particle in a liquid medium under the influence of an applied electric field. Mineral behavior in cataphoresis, as indicated by the magnitude and sign of its ionic charge, can be represented by the term zeta potential. In this paper, the zeta potential represents the difference in potential between the immovable liquid layer attached to the surface of a solid particle and the movable liquid layer in the body of the liquid, and is the result of the tendency of ions on the surface of the particle and within the liquid boundary layer to establish a condition of equilibrium. A high positive zeta potential means that the mineral surface is dominated by cations, a high negative zeta potential indicates domination by anions, and a low zeta potential indicates that the surface is influenced almost equally by cations and anions. In terms of observed quantities the zeta potential is given by the relation _ 4µ(300)² Z= kx in which z is the zeta potential expressed in in volts, µ the viscosity of the solution in poises, u the velocity of particles in centimeters per second, x the impressed potential gradient in volts per centimeter, and k the dielectric constant of the solution in c.g.s. units. A convenient source for the derivation of the equation is the book by Thomas. The term zeta coefficient is an expression coined to denote the difference between the magnitude of the zeta potential of a mineral suspended in solution A, and that of the same mineral suspended in solution B, which consists of solution A and an additional chemical agent, but is at the same pH. For example, the difference between the zeta potential of galena particles in distilled water and that in any chemical solution at the same pH is a zeta coefficient. Or, when the zeta potential of a mineral particle is measured first in distilled water, then in a mixture of water and copper sulphate, and finally in a mixture of water, copper sulphate and xan-thate, we can calculate the zeta coefficient

Jan 1, 1947

By H. O. Seigel, J. C. Gingerich, E. O. Köstlin

"To satisfy their continuing need to replenish or expand their ore reserves, mining companies are faced with the dilemma of arriving at a proper balance between the dual avenues of discovery through in-house exploration and of acquisition of properties that are relatively proven or are even in production. The returns from exploration activities may be spectacular, but are unpredictable. The allure of an acquisition lies in its promise of quick and risk-reduced addition to reserves. However, it is historically clear that quantum increments in shareholders’ values have arisen primarily through major exploration discoveries, rather than through major late-stage acquisitions. Late-stage acquisitions can prove highly profitable, sometimes based upon the planned use of superior mining or metallurgical technology, but more often occur as the result of unexpected windfalls. At the other extreme, they can become expensive failures through inadequate due diligence, or unforeseeable factors.Citing numerous case histories and industry statistics, it is concluded that a judicious combination of both exploration activity and the acquisition of prospects is the most advantageous strategy for adding new ore reserves. A skilled exploration staff is essential for success, be it through exploration discoveries or through opportunistic acquisitions, preferably at their early stages. In the future, it is anticipated that there will be fewer opportunities for acquisition because of reduced funding for junior exploration companies, leading to increased competition and higher costs for fewer properties, both in the advanced exploration and mining stages."

Jan 1, 2002

By Walter Fuchs

It is now generally conceded that coal is the product of deposition and transformation of debris of forests and swamps.29 Ample data are available to illustrate the metamorphosis of biochemical substances through biological action; other data show the progressive regional metamorphism existing in coal beds;25 and numerous examples of change effected by intrusion of igneous dikes into coal deposits have been established.23 However, often the relative importance of the biological and the geological factor in determining the character of the various natural coals is a debatable question. Since both biological and geological factors are ever present in nature, the problem, at first glance, would appear to resemble certain probability problems: specifically the simultaneous toss of two coins, with the biological factor as heads and the geological as tails. The probability is 2:I for the combined effect of both factors, as compared to the exclusive effect of either one, if the a priori probability is the same for each factor. This condition can be analyzed by a thermodynamic treatment of data, which may be obtained from a consideration of pertinent biological, chemical, geophysical and geological facts. Synopsis of Biological and Chemical Facts The biosphere is not sterile; i.e., microorganisms are always present. Microor- ganisms have been established in the ocean deep, under the ice of the polar regions, in the sand of the deserts, and in swamps far below the surface. The various biological media may be acid, neutral, or alkaline, and they may or may not be readily accessible to air. Microorganisms are encountered almost everywhere, except where the temperature is not within the range tolerable by microbial life. Of course, with changing conditions, the type of microorganisms will change. All chemical products of life—proteins, fats, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins— may serve as a habitat of microorganisms. In the decomposition of a medium, some microorganisms macerate organic matter mechanically and remove certain constituents for their own nutrition; others decompose a large part of the organic matter but may leave certain constituents undecomposed. Some attack only certain specific ingredients of the organic matter. All of them build up cell substance. The nitrogen content of the medium largely determines the degree of decomposition. Below 1.7 per cent nitrogen, growth of microorganisms and hence decomposition of organic material is retarded; consequently organic material will accumulate.17,32 Such accumulations of organic material may give coal eventually. Coals differ in type and rank. The nature of the original vegetation and the conditions attending the transformation of the accumulated debris determine the type of coal such as bright, splint, cannel, and algal or boghead coals. Chemical analysis of representative samples of a given type of

Jan 1, 1942

By Walter Fuchs

It is now generally conceded that coal is the product of deposition and transformation of debris of forests and swamps.29 Ample data are available to illustrate the metamorphosis of biochemical substances through biological action; other data show the progressive regional metamorphism existing in coal beds;25 and numerous examples of change effected by intrusion of igneous dikes into coal deposits have been established.23 However, often the relative importance of the biological and the geological factor in determining the character of the various natural coals is a debatable question. Since both biological and geological factors are ever present in nature, the problem, at first glance, would appear to resemble certain probability problems: specifically the simultaneous toss of two coins, with the biological factor as heads and the geological as tails. The probability is 2:I for the combined effect of both factors, as compared to the exclusive effect of either one, if the a priori probability is the same for each factor. This condition can be analyzed by a thermodynamic treatment of data, which may be obtained from a consideration of pertinent biological, chemical, geophysical and geological facts. Synopsis of Biological and Chemical Facts The biosphere is not sterile; i.e., microorganisms are always present. Microor- ganisms have been established in the ocean deep, under the ice of the polar regions, in the sand of the deserts, and in swamps far below the surface. The various biological media may be acid, neutral, or alkaline, and they may or may not be readily accessible to air. Microorganisms are encountered almost everywhere, except where the temperature is not within the range tolerable by microbial life. Of course, with changing conditions, the type of microorganisms will change. All chemical products of life—proteins, fats, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins— may serve as a habitat of microorganisms. In the decomposition of a medium, some microorganisms macerate organic matter mechanically and remove certain constituents for their own nutrition; others decompose a large part of the organic matter but may leave certain constituents undecomposed. Some attack only certain specific ingredients of the organic matter. All of them build up cell substance. The nitrogen content of the medium largely determines the degree of decomposition. Below 1.7 per cent nitrogen, growth of microorganisms and hence decomposition of organic material is retarded; consequently organic material will accumulate.17,32 Such accumulations of organic material may give coal eventually. Coals differ in type and rank. The nature of the original vegetation and the conditions attending the transformation of the accumulated debris determine the type of coal such as bright, splint, cannel, and algal or boghead coals. Chemical analysis of representative samples of a given type of

Jan 1, 1942

By Russell E. Griffin

Dielectric constants and dissipation factors were measured by the Bureau of Mines for 13 simulated lunar rocks over the 20-to 100-megahertz frequency range by means of the susceptance-variation method. Measurements were made at room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure. Results are presented and some comparison is made with data reported by others. The rocks used include a broad range of physical characteristics and chemical compositions from the large areas of volcanism in Oregon and northern California, and two nonvolcanic types. These rocks make up a suite of rock standards used by a group of laboratories engaged in lunar research. The data presented will add to the basic scientific and engineering knowledge needed to utilize extra-terrestrial mineral resources for support of future space missions.

Jan 1, 1974

The object of this talk is to bring before members the importance of the prospector and the' State Battery system to the wealth and prosperity of the mining industry in particular and the State of Western Australia in general, and to touch on the more important features.Customs plants of any sort are usually subject to a good deal of critioism, usually on the large profits made at the expense of the customer, etc., and this often clouds the real value of the work being done.Prospectors, on the whole, are a good class of men; they work under conditions and difficulties which would deter those less spirited. Food, water and mining supplies are often difficult to obtain and frequently have to be transported great distances. Their mining tools are usually of the most primitive type, yet during last year over 109,000 tons of prospectors' ore were handled by the State Battery system for 73,250 fine oz. valued in Australian currency at over £587,000, the value being 57/- per long ton at par.This production brings the State Battery system into fourth position amongst the producers of the State, the yield being exceeded by the Lake View and Star, Wiluna and the Great Boulder.In passing I might mention that these notes were written at the end of the year 1940, and the above figures were for the previous period. The figures for last year, 1940, were not quite so good, being 101,000 tons for approximately 60,000 fine oz., valued in Australian currency at £572,000.In spite of this drop the State Battery system maintained its position as fourth in order of gold output for the State.The extractions, as a whole, throughout the system, were 92·54%, made up of 68·86% by amalgamation and 23·68% by cyanidation. These figures, for a group of 20 plants treating widely different classes of ore, must be considered satisfactory. The total production since inception is over £11,000,000 in Australian currency.State Batteries are usually more or less of a standard design. Ore is reduced to about 2i in. maximum size before being sent to the bins. Challenge automatic feeeders control the feed to each mill unit, amalgamated copper plates collect the free gold. Corduroy strakes are used with some ores after amalgamation, but in only a few cases has this been found of any advantage to the customer.The pulp from the battery is sampled, after leaving the tables, with a "Tazewell" sampler and pumped to dams for subsequent cyanide treatment.The "Tazewell" sampler is a machine driven by the moving pulp; and takes about fifteen dips per .minute from such pulp through a slotted...

Jan 1, 1941

By D. C. Oliver

Paper written on project work carried out in partial fulfilment of B.Sc. (Eng.) (Metallurgy and Materials) degree Corrosion in exhaust systems can occur on both the interior and exterior surfaces. Chloride-containing de-icing salts on the roads in colder countries greatly increases the rate of corrosion on the exterior surfaces. This paper investigates the relative exterior corrosion resistance of three alloys?two ferritic stainless steels( AISI Types 409 and 441) and an aluminized mild steel. The exhaust system is split into two categories?the hot end and the cold end. A test for each of these ends was designed?the standard ASTM G85test was modified to create a simulated driving cycle. The cold end test samples were exposed to ten driving cycles, and the hot end test samples were exposed to five driving cycles. A driving cycle constitutes the car being started from cold, driven until the operating temperatures are reached, and switched off and allowed to cool. Pitting corrosion is the primary corrosion mechanism occurring at the cold end of the exhaust system. The aluminized mild steel was the most resistant alloy in this test, and Type 409 the least. However, once the protective aluminium layer degrades, corrosion will occur rapidly. At the hot end of the exhaust system, spalling of the surface oxide layer is the primary corrosion mechanism occurring. Type 441 was the most resistant in this test, and the aluminized mild steel the least resistant. Potentiodynamic tests were performed on the alloys?the results agreed with the results obtained in the exposure tests.

Jan 1, 2003

By D. Earley

High metal prices and new world trade standards and accounting for environmental liability in financial disclosures are creating markets for metals commodities that are produced using ?green technologies?. A promising "green" gold leaching system uses a polysulfide based lixiviant which is non-toxic and non-polluting. Laboratory testing has demonstrated selective gold extraction rates comparable to those of cyanide. The polysulfide lixiviant is a dilute aqueous solution which can be inexpensively produced from readily available chemical reagents and even mining wastes. The reagent system is self-buffering and maintains the optimal chemical environment for leaching. Treatment of residual leach solutions is not necessary because the lixiviant itself is not toxic, and breaks down as the system equilibrates. Simple closed system boiling is used to recover gold from process solutions. The polysulfide lixiviant can then be readily renewed and recycled back into the system, forming a closed loop system that conserves reagents and energy which minimizes operating costs. Economic projections have shown that the system can be used profitably for standard ore types and grades.

Jan 1, 2009

By Theodore James Kurela

Analysis of adverse technical issues has traditionally relied on a snapshot of the state of the operation complemented with both the melt shop’s archived data and eyewitness accounts of adverse events. The GrafTech ArchiTech System is helping EAF shops solve problems faster by combining continuous analysis of information with statistically based alerts of process deviations. After one year of system implementation, a number of cases have been detected and communicated to melt shops worldwide. The objective of this paper is to examine a few of these cases; the early detection, statistical analysis, deviation reporting and the resulting countermeasures implemented.

Aug 17, 2017