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By Christopher Newman, David Newman

The ability to assess, address, and predict mining-induced stress distribution is paramount in maintaining a safe and efficient underground operation as coal mines continue to develop at deeper depths and in more geologically complex reserves. This is especially true for longwall mining operations given their limited flexibility in panel layout and orientation. This paper focuses on ground behaviors and conditions observed at two deep-cover, steeply dipping longwall mining operations in Utah’s Unita coal basin. This region is susceptible to coal pillar bump/bounce events as a result of high depth of cover, high-extraction mining, and the close proximity of a thick massive stiff sandstone stratum to active mineworks. The successful prediction of mining-induced coal bump events for Mine A and Mine B operating in the Unita basin has prompted mine management to develop a rock mechanics testing database for reserve calculations. The database is applicable to mine planning as well as the development of multiple numerical models to proactively identify and address adverse ground conditions using input parameters calibrated to site-specific behaviors and conditions. For both Mine A and Mine B, the most critical question relates to longwall development and recovery for “extreme” deep-cover longwall panels at overburden depths greater than 600 m. This paper highlights the impact of high-stress concentrations associated with deep-cover longwall mining as well as the methods applied to mitigate stress impacts on miner safety and longwall production.

Jul 1, 2023

By D. Nebbia, R. Aliberti, F. Solesin

The launch of a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) is one of the most challenging activity parts of the construction of a tunnel. Challenges are coming from limited space available, learning curve, concurrence of other activities and in some cases from the geological conditions. Launching a TBM is an extraordinary and complicated operation requiring a great level of planning. The Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) TBM named “Chris” was successfully launched for the Northeast Boundary Tunnel, the largest component of the Clean Rivers Project in Washington, DC. Due to space and time constraints, the 8-meter diameter TBM was launched from a single 20-meter diameter shaft, with a 30-meter-long tail tunnel by means of umbilical connections. This paper presents the steps followed during the TBM assembly and launching to complete the excavation of the initial drive of the tunnel maintaining high level of efficiency and quality despite the space constraints. Specifically, it focuses on the methods and phases used to extract the excavated material (muck) from the TBM and from the tunnel, to supply consumables, precast rings and backfill grout. The paper presents results in terms of productivity, lesson learned and possible alternatives to be considered in similar conditions.

Jun 13, 2021

By Peng Gao

Coal-based reduction followed by magnetic separation is an innovative technology used in processing refractory iron ores. Given that size is essential to the separation of the metallic iron from the gangue, the morphology of metallic iron particles and their evolution during coal-based reduction are investigated in the present work. The size of the metallic iron particle increased from 128.76 µm to 565.70 µm when the reduction time increased from 20 min to 60 min at 1,225° C and C/O (i.e., the amount of coal addition in terms of the gram-atomic ratio of the fixed carbon in the coal added to the combined oxygen in iron oxides) of 2.5. Based on our microstructural and metallographic analysis, the iron ore reduction process can be divided into three stages: (1) metallic iron particle formation, (2) iron oxide reduction and metallic iron assembly and (3) metallic iron particle growth. Almost all iron oxides are reduced to metallic iron in the second stage. These newborn metallic iron particles are energetically active and able to assemble and grow, and are eventually separated from the gangue. The large metallic iron particles benefit the subsequent magnetic separation process.

By Hee-Young Chung, In-Mo Lee, Jeongjun Park, Hangseok Choi, Seok-Won Lee

"When using a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) during tunneling work, unexpected ground conditions can be encountered that are not predicted in the design stage. These reduce the stability of tunnels, and can result in considerable economic losses. This paper analyzes the potential risk events that may occur due to risky ground conditions. A resistivity survey is utilized to predict the risky ground conditions ahead of the tunnel face during construction. The potential risk events are evaluated considering both the occurrence probability and the impact. A TBM risk management system that can suggest proper solution methods for potential risk events is also developed. Multi-Criterion Decision Making (MCDM) is utilized to determine the optimal solution method to handle risk events. Lastly, an actual construction site, at which a risk event occurred during tunnel construction, is analyzed utilizing the Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) Shield TBM, to verify the efficacy of the proposed system.INTRODUCTION The Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) method has been widely adopted in numerous tunneling projects because, as a mechanized tunneling method, it is also environmentally friendly, exhibiting minimal noise and vibration when compared with conventional tunneling method. In addition, it provides considerable economic benefits that allow for a high advance rate for long drives during construction. However, the TBM method has a limitation, as it is unable to deal with unexpected situations during construction, as the system is not capable of moving backwards. This leads to delays or even stoppages, and a corresponding increase in construction costs due to the need to arrange for alternative equipment and solutions. It is essential to retain systematic management in order to prevent or deal with unforeseen consequences such as the collapse of a tunnel face, ground surface upheaval or settlement, and construction delay due to water leakage during construction. Therefore, a systematic risk management system that is applicable during the construction stage of the TBM tunnel should be developed, taking into account the predicted risky ground conditions ahead of the tunnel face in advance."

Jan 1, 2016

By Javad Sattarvand, Milad Ghahramanieisalou

As new technologies are introduced to the mining industry, the challenges related to their safe assimilation and the potential changes they bring to mining techniques necessitate adjustments to the current operations. Predictive simulations are critical to understanding unforeseen scenarios and shifting costly changes from the operational stage to the design. The Digital Twin methodology has gained a lot of attention in recent years. Many industries, from manufacturing to engineering and even social sciences, are adopting this approach to understand better the complex systems they are working with. By considering the enormous expenses and risks related to a pilot project, DT could replace that by acting as a prototype in which realistic tests and simulations are carried out with close to zero cost. DT includes a data hub, simulation and analysis tools, and visualization platforms to enable appropriate designs and monitoring plans focusing on unknown areas. A few examples of DT's application in mining include fleet management, Mine-to-Mill optimization (especially D&B), geotechnical digital twin (gDT), etc. When developing regulations, testing the efficiency of the mine layout, design, and magnitude of the restricted area and its access points, human-machine interactions, risk identification, and management processes, examining the efficacy of control systems, and monitoring, DT could help speed up (or completely replace) the process in the physical world.

Jun 25, 2023

By Peter Johnson, David Barber, Lachlan Henderson

"Within underground portions of metro rail networks the traditional approach to a design fire has been to assume a worst credible railcar fire and develop ventilation and egress measures for life safety. This approach is being challenged as a rail network approach to design fires becomes a more practical and realistic approach. The network approach is based on utilizing an in-depth hazard analysis, to understand ignition and fire load sources in tunnels, above and below the floor of the railcar and within stations, and then utilizing a quantitative risk assessment to determine sets of fire scenarios. The process allows small, medium and large fires to be considered, with the consequences also being quantified. The selection of design fires has a significant influence on fire protection measures within a metro network and hence, is a major cost input. The rail network approach provides more robust decisions on fires, based on the hazards present. INTRODUCTION A fire within a rail car or one that occurs as part of a rail system can threaten the lives of users, maintenance staff and emergency services personnel. Fires in metro systems are rare events but can have severe consequences. As a result, any analysis of a potential fire must be thorough and rigorous and address not only regular accidents and small fires, but also very low probability, high consequence scenarios. The fire safety design process for a tunnel and station must start with the design engineers, contractor and operators making a number of key decisions related to fire protection measures, which may have significant cost considerations. One of the key aspects that influences the required fire protection is the design fire and the design fire scenarios, which is a key input for analysis. This paper provides an overview of the author’s experience in designing fire protection measures for rail networks in Europe, Australia and NZ, where a risk based framework is used to develop design fires and scenarios for the whole rail system – trains, stations and tunnels. This system wide approach is innovative, challenges the norms, but provides significantly more informed outcomes. The range of design fires will include small fires that may halt the network, larger fires for smoke hazard system design and significant post-flashover fires to assess the structural response."

Jan 1, 2016

By Rory P. A. Ball, Mark Briggs, Martin Dix

"Tunnel professionals should inform project stakeholders on the reality that tunnel projects are not 100 percent devoid of the need for excavations or public inconveniences during both design and construction phases. Competing stakeholder objectives to limit these disruptions must be weighed against the need to mitigate risks and to produce a constructible, operable and maintainable end product. Perhaps the approach we should take with stakeholders, also known as Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs), is sharing memorable case studies that bring to life the potential risks so often buried within lengthy risk registers. This paper provides a sobering case study describing what can occur if the presence and/or location of utilities and other obstructions are not fully understood due to restrictions placed on exploration or mining operations. In this instance, the Microtunnel Tunnel Boring Machine (MTBM) encountered a buried concrete structure, followed by rows of abandoned wood piles, before finally colliding with an active high-pressure gas main under a bustling coastal highway. Multiple stakeholders imposed tight logistical and other work restrictions, compounding the difficulties experienced during the drive. However, the difficulties were effectively managed through the project team’s proactive collaboration and communication with everyone involved. INTRODUCTION Some of the most important decisions that influence the ultimate success or failure of a project may not be made by design engineers. Instead, these decisions are often made by project stakeholders and third-party agencies. Tasked with protecting the best interests of their users, these agencies are cautious of potential impacts associated with project construction and subsequent use. Unfortunately, actions required (or restricted) by stakeholders often result in unwanted ripple effects that negatively affect the very users they are trying to protect. For example, a mandate limiting a shaft site to an unreasonable size may be intended to reduce local business impacts, but may actually increase impacts as more supply and truck hauling is required."

Jan 1, 2016

By John A. L. Campbell

Surface dependent processes, such as froth flotation and flocculation, are important or potentially important techniques for combating some of the current major problems in coal preparation. In order to correctly apply or imporve a surface dependent process, it is of paramount importance to understand the interfacial phenomenon, especially the double layer properties, exhibited by the solid. The specific objective of this research was to determine the properties of the bituminous coal/liquid interface by an electrokinetic method, streaming potential, and to relate the findings, wherever possible, to the existing unit operations of froth flotation and flocculation. The electrokinetic properties of both the whole coal and its lithotypes were investigated. As part of the total investigation, the role played in the double layer by the reagents commonly employed in the surface dependent process was also established (1). These data will be presented at a latter date.

Jan 1, 1969

By M. Saidman, R. Pizzuti, R. Hirschfeld, A. J. Desai, J. Rand

Two bedrock tunnels, 170 to 250 feet deep and with a length of about 17,000 feet each, will be used to convey cooling water from the Atlantic Ocean to the Seabrook, N.H., Nuclear Power Plant. Seismic reflection and refraction surveys were used to obtain preliminary information about overburden and bedrock conditions. A major boring program, including core orientation and water-pressure testing, was undertaken to provide detailed geologic data. The results of the geotechnical investigation were summarized in terms of rock type, frequency and character of joints, degree of weathering, modified core recovery (RQD), pressure-test results and strength and hardness. These parameters were used as a basis for evaluating the feasibility of using a tunnel-boring machine, for designing and estimating the initial support systems, and for evaluating the grouting and tunnel lining requirements.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. A. Stanley

The Bureau of Mines has developed an equation which describes the dewatering of clay slurries with polyethylene oxide. This dewatering equation is An _ kC + b where n, k. and b are empirical constants and C is the concentration of polymer solution used for dewatering. The minimum amount of polymer required for dewatering. A is determined by titration of the clay slurry with a polymer solution. In this report, the dewatering equation is applied to data obtained for a polyacrylamide dewatering sequence. Fundamental similarities between the dewatering properties of clays and the viscosity of polymer solutions were observed. These similarities were explained by correlating an equation describing polymer configuration in solution with the dewatering equation. This correlation showed that amount of polymer required for dewatering and polymer solution viscosity are both consequences of the frictional interaction of entangled polymer coils.

Jan 1, 1989

By Jan M. Mutmansky, Y. J. Wang

In the mathematical analysis of electrical networks, the electrical devices are often modeled using idealized network elements such as current sources, voltage sources and resistors. An analogous approach is outlined for the modeling of mine ventilation networks, which can be considered nonlinear resistive networks. The proposed modeling technique uses the following five basic (nonreducible) elements: H, Q, D, R and N. These elements are characterized by their pressure gain or loss, their air quantity and their pressure-vs.-quantity relationships, each of which may be known or unknown. In addition to the definition of the basic elements, the necessary conditions for which there exists a unique solution are discussed. This is performed using theoretical developments derived from electrical circuit theory and illustrated in example networks. The proposed procedures are useful in the solution and characterization of mine-ventilation networks.

Jan 1, 1998

By B. J. Scheiner, D. A. Stanly, P. M. Brown

The Bureau of Mines has developed an equation that describes the dewatering of clay slurries with poly- ethylene oxide. This dewatering equation is: A[ ] = KC + b where n, k, and h are empirical constants and C is the concentration of polymer solution used for dewatering. The minimum amount of polymer required for dewatering, A, is determined by titration of the clay slurry with a polymer solution. In this report, the dewatering equation is applied to data obtained for a polyacrylamide dewatering sequence. Fundamental similarities between the dewatering properties of clays and the viscosity of polymer solutions were observed. These similarities were explained by correlating an equation describing polymer configuration in solution with the dewatering equation. This correlation showed that the amount of polymer required for dewatering and polymer solution viscosity are both the consequences of the frictional interaction of entangled polymer coils.

Jan 1, 1991

By Y. J. Wang

In the, mathematical analysis of electrical networks, the electrical devices are often modeled using idealized network elements such as current sources, voltage sources and resistors. An analogous approach is outlined for the modeling of mine ventilation networks, which can be considered nonlinear resistive networks. The proposed modeling technique uses the following five basic (nonreducible) elements: H, Q, D, R and N. These elements are characterized by their pressure gain or loss, their air quantity and their pressure-vs. -quantity relationships, each of which may be known or unknown. In addition to the definition of the basic elements, the necessary conditions for which there exists a unique solution are discussed This is performed using theoretical developments derived from electrical circuit theory and illustrated in example networks. The proposed procedures are useful in the solution and characterization of mine-ventilation networks.

Jan 1, 1997

By P. Brooks, W. LaRochelle, J. M. Tranquilla

EMR's recently commissioned Pilot Plant in Fredericton, N.B. Canada, the latest and largest in the company's sequence of prototype and demonstration systems, is being used as a process development facility for mining clients worldwide. Fitted with two microwave reactors and 75 kW generators, this plant is designed as a two-stage continuous processor with a throughput in the 5-10 tpd range depending upon the material feedstream. This facility has been used principally to calcine pyrite and arsenopyrite gold concentrates although it can readily accommo­date carbonaceous materials as well as a wide range of other ore types. Engineering details of the plant and the results of the first nine months of operation are presented. The plant has proven very successful as an advanced process development facility as well as a basic production unit module.

Jan 1, 1998

By Olivia Perkins, Shawn Sismondi, Adrian St. John, Vicky Potts

"INTRODUCTION An inherent aspect of any tunnelling project is ground risk: how it is identified, quantified and managed throughout the various stages of a project. Early identification of these risks, such as adverse ground conditions or potential obstructions is crucial; however specific identification of all risks will inevitably be limited by the extent of the desk study, ground investigation and accuracy of as-built information available, particularly in a densely populated urban environment such as London with a long and varied history of development. It is therefore crucial to have suitable plans and procedures in place for dealing with potential ground risk scenarios if they occur during construction work to ensure the safety of the workforce and to protect nearby critical assets. A number of experiences of potential ground risk were encountered during the Sprayed Concrete Lining (SCL) works on Crossrail contract C300/410 which was constructed by a joint venture of BAM Ferrovial Kier (BFK). The C300/410 works, undertaken in the heart of London, comprised of over 2.5km of SCL tunnels for Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road Stations and the Fisher Street crossover, as well as two 6.2km TBM tunnel drives between Royal Oak and Farringdon. BFK appointed Donaldson Associates as their SCL designers for the works; together they were responsible for excavation stability up to the point of ring closure. Despite the majority of SCL tunnelling works at Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road being through the favourable medium of London clay, there remained areas of local geotechnical challenges. Some of these were expected from the outset, some became apparent as works progressed from records of other nearby excavation works, and some were only encountered during tunnel excavation. Being located in the centre of London meant that there always remained a possibility of meeting some form of obstruction from previous structures. However, identification of all potential issues prior to the commencement of the works was challenging and proved to not be entirely possible. Through a series of case studies, this paper documents incidents where obstructions or adverse ground conditions arose. These scenarios all had the potential to cause safety risks, impact the tunnel design and/or construction methods and ultimately add time and cost to the works. The paper discusses how these challenges were overcome which utilised in part, a progressive risk reduction cycle, feeding back knowledge gained at all stages of construction into the approach for undertaking the works. It also examines what could be done in future to further reduce the ground risk through early identification, communication, education and appropriate contingency measures."

Jan 1, 2016

By Martin P. Schroeder

"Challenges have emerged as subway systems age and as new tunnels are bored in congested corridors or in high-risk environments. To help public transportation agencies address tunneling challenges, the American Public Transportation Association has convened numerous independent industry peer reviews composed of top experts in their fields to come together and provide recommendations and solutions. This paper provides case histories of peer reviews that include topics such as boring through toxic soils, boring underneath existing tunnels, retrofit of tunnel ventilation systems, and mitigation of water intrusion. Peer reviews are applicable to all tunnel projects worldwide. The paper will highlight the conditions of these challenges, peer review recommendations, steps taken to reach agreement, and the successes that resulted, which led to major changes, new legislation and reduction of risk. INTRODUCTION Public transit agencies face many challenges in maintaining and expanding safe transit operations, especially as systems age, ridership expands, and budgets remain flat. The development of new industry standards and federal safety regulations places further demands on transit systems, with compliance often taxing in-house resources. Studies of the state-of-good-repair across US public transit systems indicate a current backlog of $84 billion in maintenance projects, which will require an investment of $18.2 billion per year to eliminate the backlog by 2030[1]. Systems not in a state-of-good-repair may not operate efficiently, may not be available to meet the growing ridership demands, and may not meet required safety goals or reduction of risk. Innovation is another clear need transit agencies have for improving system performance and lowering operating costs.To meet these challenges, transit agencies often turn to industry peer reviews for guidance and recommendations as part of their overall strategy to maintain and grow the safe operation of their systems. As a service to its members, the American Public Transportation System (APTA) has developed an industry peer review program designed to give agencies opportunities to learn from each other and help them address challenges in operations, engineering design, and construction of their systems. Over the past 20 years, APTA has performed hundreds of peer reviews covering all aspects of transit system operations from fare collection to agency organization, project delivery methods to safety culture, and engineering design including tunneling and tunnel fire ventilation. As rail transit systems expand to meet increased ridership, it is often necessary to bore new tunnels for alignments in congested areas where surface rights-of-way are lacking. Such proposed alignments can pose significant challenges for transit agencies, as they contend with various tunneling problems."

Jan 1, 2016

By Dermot M. Ross-Brown

The more important factors controlling the design of pit slopes are related to the local geology over which the designer has little or no control. Nevertheless, there are some factors over which the designer does exert some control and these concern the say in which the rock is excavated and supported. They include blasting, face cleaning, water control, and the use of rock improvement techniques. The paper discusses these factors and relates the extra costs incurred to the steeper slope angles that can usually be obtained. It is demonstrated that even a modest increase in bench angle of 5° through improved excavation techniques can pay off in a single push-back.

Jan 1, 1975

By Jill Dill Pasteris

Several mineralogical prospecting techniques are used in diamond exploration. Most are concerned with identifying indicator minerals such as garnet and ilmenite, which are derived from mantle xenoliths hosted by kimberlites. The first goal of such prospecting is to locate kimberlite intrusions; the second goal is to identify the diamond-bearing kimberlites. Explorationists have worked much less on the indigenous kimberlite phases. The kimberlitic opaque oxides, ilmenite and particularly spinels, promise to be useful in discriminating between intrusion episodes in identified kimberlites, and perhaps in the evaluation and prediction of diamond grades. Several petrologists have showed that spinel compositions and zoning patterns are specific to certain intrusive facies in South African and Canadian kimberlites. Careful evaluation may indicate a correlation between spinel parameters and diamond content.

Jan 1, 1983

By E. H. Christiansen

Gem-quality red beryl in the Wah Wah Mountains of southwestern Utah formed as a post-magmatic mineral in a topaz rhyolite flow. Unlike topaz, this beryl occurs along fractures in devitrified rhyolite, rather than in lithophysal vugs. The flow occupies a graben and perhaps a significant paleo-drainage. Beryl occurs at medial depths within the eroded flow, about 170 m below overlying mafic lava flows. Both beryl-bearing fractures and the host rhyolite show an unusual amount of argillic alteration compared with other topaz rhyolite flows. Alteration may be related to the incursion of surface water along shrinkage fractures within the flow. Whole-rock concentrations of CaO within the host rhyolite are very low (<0.01 % to 0.18%) compared with other topaz rhyolites and Be concentrations (about 20 ppm) are about average. Low Ca activities prevented fluorite precipitation and allowed Be transport as fluoride complexes. Beryl probably grew at subsolidus temperatures (-300-650°C), but above the temperature of kaolin development (200-300°C) as fluoride-rich vapors, released by devitrification, encountered fractures and mixed with vapors derived from surface water flowing through the fractures. Beryllium fluoride complexes reacted with water vapor, silica minerals, alkali feldspar, water, and Fe-Mn oxides along fractures to produce red beryl. Continued reaction of the cooling flow with surface water at lower temperatures probably produced a boiling, more acidic fluid that produced the argillic alteration. Consequently, eruption of low-Ca topaz rhyolite followed by entrance of surface water into medial portions of a devitrifying and still hot lava flow appear to be critical factors that led to red beryl formation.

Jan 1, 1996

By F. N. Kissell, H. K. Sacks

This study examines the accuracy of area sampling for measuring the dust exposure of mining machine operators in coal mines. The specific objective of this research was to find locations where an area sampler might work better than earlier studies have indicated. The results show that fixed-location area sampling cannot accurately predict the dust exposure of a machine operator, even when the best fixed location is sought, the fixed location is quite close to the operator and the bias due to the dust concentration gradient is corrected. Industrial hygienists have known for many years that area sampling is unsuitable for measuring air contaminant exposures in the workplace. Near contaminant sources, the dilution air and the contaminants are not evenly mixed. Therefore, when workers are near contaminant sources, exposure measurements must be taken from the worker&apos;s breathing zone to be accurate.

Jan 1, 2003