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This section presents highlights of world economic and mineral industry performance in 1982, a year characterized by continued recession, and selected 1983 forecasts of economic indicators of importance to the mineral industry, some of which indicate a modest improvement in the economies of the United States and Western Europe. The U.S. Economy in 1982 In 1982 U.S. gross national product (GNP) in current dollars increased at a rate of 4 percent, but GNP adjusted for inflation (real GNP) declined at a rate of 1.8 percent. Yearend 1982 real GNP was at roughly the same level as in 1980 (table 1). Thus no growth in real terms had taken place in the United States during the 1980-82 period.

Jan 1, 1983

By R. F. Waters

Laboratory-scale selective volatilization methods developed by the Bureau of Mines to recover germanium and gallium concentrates from coal fly ash and phosphorus furnace flue dust are summarized. In the better experiments between 85 and 98 percent of the germanium was recovered as the lower oxide and as sulfides, and between 75 and 97 percent of the gallium was recovered as the lower oxide and as the trichloride. Grades of the condensates were inconsistent and varied between a few tenths of a percent and 8 percent, depending on the method used. In the primary extractions of germanium alone the degree of enrichment surpassed 100 to 1, and for gallium the best ratio was 30 to 1. Upgrading of condensates by vaporization retreatment and by leaching and precipitation is discussed. An appreciable degree of mechanical preconcentration by attrition scrubbing and elutriation was possible on two fly ash samples.

Jan 1, 1967

By H. C. Carpenter

This literature study of methods for desulfurizing residual fuel oil was conducted by the Bureau of Mines at the request of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The sulfur compounds in residual fuels are believed to consist chiefly of condensed thiophenes and other polycyclic sulfur compounds. Hydrodesulfurization appears to be the most promising method for desulfurizing these oils and is the only method applicable to all types of sulfur compounds. There are indications in the literature that hydrodesulfurization without hydrocracking of residual oils may require higher pressures than used in present desulfurization processes, but no cost data and little experimental data are available on the higher pressure operation. Literature proposals for hydrogenating residual oils and heavy crude oils are exclusively for hydrocracking the oils to lower boiling products with accompanying partial desulfurization of the residual fuel fraction. Costs of the hydrocracking operations appear the closest available to probable costs of hydrodesulfurizing the oils, and have been reported (in 1955 to 1957) as $500 to $840 investment cost per daily barrel of capacity, with total operating costs of 70 cents to $1.10 per barrel.

Jan 1, 1963

By H. C. Carpenter

This literature study of methods for desulfurizing residual fuel oil was conducted by the Bureau of Mines at the request of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The sulfur compounds in residual fuels are believed to consist chiefly of condensed thiophenes and other polycyclic sulfur compounds. Hydrodesulfurization appears to be the most promising method for desulfurizing these oils and is the only method applicable to all types of sulfur compounds. There are indications in the literature that hydrodesulfurization without hydrocracking of residual oils may require higher pressures than used in present desulfurization processes, but no cost data and little experimental data are available on the higher pressure operation. Literature proposals for hydrogenating residual oils and heavy crude oils are exclusively for hydrocracking the oils to lower boiling products with accompanying partial desulfurization of the residual fuel fraction. Costs of the hydrocracking operations appear the closest available to probable costs of hydrodesulfurizing the oils, and have been reported (in 1955 to 1957) as $500 to $840 investment cost per daily barrel of capacity, with total operating costs of 70 cents to $1.10 per barrel.

Jan 1, 1963

By W. H. Oppelt

The continuous gasification of lignite in an externally heated alloy-steel re-tort was investigated by the Bureau of Mines, Grand Forks, N. Dak., from 1945 to 1951. The main objective of the long-term experimental program was to obtain data on the mechanical performance of this type of gasification retort, particularly the alloy-steel heat-transfer surface of the retort, when operated on large pilot-plant scale. At the same time, extensive experimental data were obtained concerning the effect of process variables and the effect of a limited number of design modifications on gasifier performance. In the period covered by this progress report 4 pilot-plant runs totaling 2,879 hours of operation were completed with the rolled-plate, 310-alloy reaction tube. Over 30 million cubic feet of gas, having H2-CO ratios from 2.1 to 4.4, was made by the partial gasification of 636 tons of 1-1/2-by 3/8-inch natural lignite. Rates of gas generation were from 8,200 to 14,300 cubic feet per hour. Three of the four runs were carried out with the lowered gas offtake or continuous-annulus design modification of the gasification retort. In the final run of the series, gasification of lignite from seven different mines in North Dakota and Saskatchewan, Canada, was investigated at similar combustion-space temperatures and lignite and steam feed rates.

Jan 1, 1955

When the Organic Act of 1910 established the Bureau of Mines within the Department of the Interior, the Bureau's programs involved only health and safety research and, education, and fuels testing. As the Federal Government's primary agency for research in minerals, the Bureau has expanded its scientific and technological investigations to mining, processing mineral substances, eliminating occupational health and safety hazards in the mineral industries, economic development, and resource conservation. Today, Bureau activities cover a broad spectrum of programs for meeting the diverse (and sometimes conflicting) needs of mineral industries, government, and the public. In the 1960's, the Bureau initiated programs to resolve environmental problems associated with past mining and mineral processing. In the 1970's, the energy crisis raised the national consciousness concerning our limited supplies of domestic mineral and fuel resources. Dependence on foreign sources of raw materials critical to our national economy and competition from other countries for these world supplies stimulated the need to conserve and use with intelligence the Nation's minerals, metals, and fuels.1

Jan 1, 1977

By William W. Adams

The stone-quarrying industry of the United States, including such related operations as rock crushing, rock dressing, and the manufacture of cement and lime, reported a larger volume of employment in 1934 than in 1933. Reports from the operating companies to the United States Bureau of Mines showed an increase in the number of men employed, number of man-days of employment, and total number of man-hours of labor performed during the year. Moreover, the average worker had a longer period of employment during 1934, the gain amounting to 11 percent over 1933. The increase in employment was accompanied by no increase in accidents for the industry as a whole; in fact, the accident rate for 1934 was a fraction lower than the rate for 1933. In some branches of the industry the frequency of accidents increased, but these increases were more than offset by reductions in rates for other branches. Reports for 1934 were received from 1,403 active plants. The working force averaged 64,331 men for 204 days per man, and the total period of employment for all of the men was 95,258,880 man-hours. Each employee averaged 1,481 hours of work during the year. The total number of hours of labor represented a gain of more than 8 percent, and the average working time per employee showed a gain of 62 hours per man.

Jan 1, 1936

By Thomas F. Anderson

(Measurements of stable isotopic variations (sulfur, carbon, and oxygen), supplemented by chemical, mineralogical, and petrographic analyses have been used to investigate the processes responsible for : (1) the incorporation of sulfur in coal, and (2) the (development of permineralized peat zones ("coal balls"). Sulfur isotopic results indicate that there are two principal sources of sulfur in the Pennsylvanian coals from the Illinois Basin: (1) "primary" sulfur assimilated by plants (low-sulfur coals), and (2) "secondary" sulfur produced by reactions involving H2S that was produced by the anaerobic reduction of sulfate in seawater which permeated the peat during post-depositional marine transgressions (the dominant source of sulfur in high-sulfur coals). Sulfur isotopic compositions of low-sulfur coals in Several Tertiary basins of Wyoming are consistent with a plant sulfur source. However, the inverse correlation between content and isotopic composition of sulfur observed in coals from the Powder River Basin suggest some "secondary" additions to these low-sulfur coals. Seveeral Quaternary (freshwater pears which were submerged by sea-Level rises during deglaciation over the past 30 ka have sulfur contents and isotopic compositions similar to high-sulfur coals. Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of calcareous coal balls from North America and Europe suggest that (1) the carbonate was derived from variable proportions of oxidized plant matter (typically predominant) and inorganic carbonate, and (2) the carbonate minerals were precipitated from fresh-to-brackish waters. Local geochemical and hydrological conditions were apparently more important than regional depositional environments in controlling the source of carbonate and the development of coal balls.

Jan 1, 1983

By M. W. Barger, J. K. H. Ma, J. Y. C. Ma, V. Castronova

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of various bisbenzylisoquinoline (BBIQ) alkaloids on respiratory burst activity of alveolar macrophages and to characterize the interaction of these drugs with alveolar phagocytes. BBIQ alkaloids were chosen for study because they exhibit a wide range of antifibrotic potencies in a rat model, with tetrandrine being very effective and tubocurarine being ineffective. These drugs inhibited zymosan-stimulated oxygen consumption with a potency sequence of tetrandrine (IT) = fangchinoline (FA) > berbamine (BE) ., cepharanthine (CE) "" cycleanine (CY} ~ tubocurarine (TU). This inhibition of respiratory burst activity could not be attributed to a drug-induced decline in the ATP content of these pneumocytes. Drug binding to alveolar macrophages was directly dependent on temperature and drug concentration. The sequence for binding capacity was FA > TT = BE = CY > CE ~ TU. Therefore, there was no simple relationship between binding capacity and inhibitory potency. Binding capacity was not related to lipophilicity of these alkaloids. In addition, tetrandrine failed to bind to metabolically dead cells or sonicated macrophage preparations. These data suggest that the interaction of BBIQ alkaloids with phagocytes is not simply nonspecific binding to membrane lipids. Alteration of the cytoskeletal system with vinblastine, taxol, or cytochalasin B decreased tetrandrine binding by approximately 33% when adtkd separately and by 93% when added jointly. Pre-exposure of alveolar macrophages to stimulants increased the ability of BBIQ alkaloids to inhibit both oxygen consumption and superoxide release. These data suggest that the mechanism by which BBIQ alkaloids inhibit activation of phagocytes involves microtubules and bules and microfilaments. Pre-exposure of macrophages to stimulants would change the conformation of cytoskeletal components and may make these structures more susceptible to drug interaction.

Mar 1, 1992

By D. G. Leddy, J. B. Johnson, L. D. Gratz, S. T. Bagley

"Studies have been conducted at Michigan Technological University (MTU) for over twenty years on methods for characterizing and controlling particulate emissions from heavy-duty diesel engines and die resulting effects on regulated and unregulated emissions. During that time, control technologies have developed in response to more stringent EPA standards for diesel emissions. This paper is a review of: 1) modem emission control technologies, 2) emissions sampling and chemical, physical and biological characterization methods and 3) summary results from recent studies conducted al MTU on heavy-duty diesel engines with a trap and an oxidation catalytic converter (OCC) operated on three different fuels. Control technology developments discussed are particulate traps, catalysts, advances in engine design, the application of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and modifications of fuel formulations. Methods for dilution tunnel sampling, particle size analysis, chemical analysis with emphasis on polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitro-PAH, and biological characterization using mutagenic activity (Ames) assays are described, along with statistical approaches to experimental design and data analysis.In studies at MTU, both particulate traps and an OCC have been shown to be effective for the reduction of total particulate mauer (TPM), with the OCC being better al reducing all forms of hydrocarbon emissions, including PAH and nitro-PAH, and with the traps being better at removing the solids (SOL). The use of low sulfur fuel (0.Ql % by mass) has led to additional reductions in TPM; the low sulfur fuel has been shown to reduce the number of small, nuclei-mode particles for one of the engines tested. PAH, nitro-PAH, and mutagenic actively levels generally decreased with use of either the traps or the OCC.INTRODUCTIONDuring the 1980s and the early 1990s there have been significant advancements in the development of technology to control diesel particulate emissions. Efforts have been focused on internal control of the engine by design, the use of after-treatment devices, and improvements in fuel formulations to reduce all the diesel emissions. The research and development activities have been driven by the need to meet the US EPA heavy-duty vehicle standards shown in Table 1. The important standards for new technology are the 1994 heavy-duty vehicle 0.1 gm/bhp-hr particulate, the new urban bus 0.05 gm/bhp-hr particulate standard for 1996 and the heavy-duty vehicle 4.0 gm/bhp-hr NOx standard for 1998."

Dec 1, 1995

By E. G. King

Thermodynamic calculations involving the oxides of tungsten and molybdenum have been hampered by lack of accurate entropies and high temperature heat contents. This paper presents work by the Federal Bureau of Mines on new low-temperature heat-capacity data leading to the evaluation of the 298.15° K. entropies of tungsten dioxide and tungsten trioxide, as well as high-temperature heat contents (above 298.15° K.) of molybdenum dioxide, molybdenum tri-oxide, tungsten dioxide, and tungsten trioxide. Included are heats of fusion of the two trioxides. The heats of formation at 298.15° K. of these four oxides are tabulated as measured by Mah4 5/ of this laboratory. Included also are the 298.15° K. entropy of Mo02 measured by Kin 6/ of this laboratory, and that for Mo03 according to Kelley and King.7/ These basic data provide a consistent compilation from which to perform accurate thermodynamic calculations involving these compounds. No previous low-temperature- heat-capacity measurements have been reported for tungsten dioxide. Seltz, Dunkerley, and DeWitt8/ measured the low-temperature heat capacity of tungsten trioxide. The only previously-reported high-temperature heat-content measurements for any of the oxides were conducted by Cosgrove and Snyder,9/ who measured molybdenum trioxide to 1,300° K.

Jan 1, 1960

By C. W. Owings, J. J. Forbes

"Although coal-mine explosions rank third among causes of underground fatalities, they receive more wide-spread attention than any other accidents in mines because frequently many persons lose their lives in a single disaster. Each bituminous coal-mine explosion endangers the lives of approximately 100 persons--the average number employed underground in a commercial mine. A critical analysis of coal-mine explosions in a restricted district gives a cross-section of relative existing explosion hazards, of common causes of ignitions of gas and dust, and of effective prevention measures. The Safety Division of the United States Bureau of Mines is collecting data on coal-mine explosions in the various States, and this circular is one of a series analyzing the causes and recommending methods for thy prevention of similar occurrences,The data on this circular are based on records of the United States Bureau of Mines and the West Virginia Department of Mines. Unfortunately practically all of the early records were destroyed by fire in the State House at Charleston, W. Va.; the remaining records were made available to the authors by N. P. Rhinehart, chief of the Department of Mines, and his cooperation is gratefully acknowledged.The earliest available reference to coal in West Virginia is that made by John Peter Lally who in 1742 found ""a great plenty of coals"" near a river later called Coal River. In 1809, Nicholas Roosevelt found coal along the Ohio River and used it on the New Orleans, said to have been the first steamboat west of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1810, Conrad Cotts opened a mine near Wheeling and sold coal for domestic purpose in 1812, a mine was opened on the Ohio River opposite Mason City and produced 1,200 bushels of coal that year. In 1840 the total West Virginia coal production was 298,691 tons; in 1863, the production had increased to 444,468 tons, and in 1883, to 2,335,833 tons. During this period apparently most of the coal was extracted from coal outcropping on the hillsides; little danger of gas ignition existed at that time, but explosions from blown-out shots occurred frequently. On February 22, 1383 the West Virginia legislature enacted legislation providing for a mine inspector to inspect the mines of that State, to prevent mine accidents, and to insure properly ventilated mines.In a special report to the Governor on December 31, 1884 the Inspector of Mines reported:We have 5 shafts, in 4 of which there is more or less gas; and in 1 of our drift mines there was an explosion on the 27th day of March 1880, whereby 2 men were killed and a boy badly burned.Table 1 lists 287 explosions in West Virginia coal mines. Several early explosions were listed in the annual reports of the West Virginia Department of Mines as ""blown-out shots"" or ""powder explosions"". The injuries usually were described; explosives accidents have been eliminated from these and other available data, and only those in which dust or gas were involved have been included in this paper as explosions."

Sep 1, 1934

By Sidney Katell, JOHN H. FABER, BRYCE L. MADDOX

The information abstracted from the various publications appeared in the magazines under such headings as Business and Industry , Chemical Engineering Developments , Companies in the News , Headlines of the Month , Industrial News , Industry , Refining and Gas - Processing News , Refining News , What's Happening , and others . Although most items are related to chemical and petroleum plants , a few pertain to related fields , such as markets , drilling costs for petroleum , and field prices of crude oil . Certain articles discuss various aspects of cost -estimating procedures or description of processes . Cost bibliographies prepared by other groups are discussed in items 70 and 271. The two references can be considered as supplemental to this report , since the amount of overlap in the contents is insignificant .

Jun 15, 1957

By Noel N. Moebs

This report summarizes a Bureau of Mines study on the use of geotechnology to identify and reduce ground control hazards at slate quarry operations in eastern Pennsylvania. The major ground control hazard is falling rock, attributed to weathered bedding plane faults, which weaken quarry highwalls. It was demonstrated that these faults can be detected outside of the quarry perimeter using surface resistivity measurements. Falls of ice from quarry highwalls constitute a second major hazard, which requires water diversion as a basic control method. In situ stresses seemingly cause only minor problems in slate extraction although they could interact with developed stresses and lead to failure of barriers between quarries. Pull tests showed that rockbolts anchor firmly in slate and should prove effective in securing loose rock.

Jan 1, 1986

By R. R. French

The industrial minerals industry in the Atlanta, Ga., area was studied in order to better understand problems associated with exploiting mineral resources in and near metropolitan areas. A method for delineating the Atlanta urban area and its component parts was developed so that the factors affecting the location of the minerals industry could be viewed mere objectively in the urban context. Major attention is focused on the area's dominant crushed stone subindustry Demographic and socioeconomic analysis of the Atlanta, Ga., area shows that expansion of the metropolis and its environs will probably eliminate potential mineral resources from the mineral resource base in the area, and that the expanding metropolis will be the primary determinant of future mining sites. Competition for land is accentuated to varying degrees by the incompatibility of wining operations with residential and other environmental requirements. Areas of consideration are suggested to provide maximum development of land and resources for greatest economic benefits it minimum social cost. Further research is recommended to determine market locations in urban areas, optimum operating levels for industrial minerals plants, and alternatives to surface mining.

Jan 1, 1970

The first metal-mine accident-prevention course was prepared and published in 1942-45 as a series of seven miners' circulars (Nos. 51-57). The scope of the course has been broadened, revised, and brought up to date, and it is being published as a similar series of seven miners' circulars (Nos. 51-57, revised) on accident prevention in metal and nonmetallic mines. These circulars are: Accident Statistics (Miners' Circular 51), dealing with general statistics on accidents and injuries at metal and nonmetallic mines, including causes, costs, and the uses of investigations and reports of all accidents.

Jan 1, 1955

By D. J. Singleton

Erosion corrosion of 12 alloys in phosphoric acid waste water was studied by the Bureau of Mines. Tests were conducted on oblate spheroids or cylindrical specimens in 12-and 60-cm-diam ball mills by grinding phosphate rock in gypsum pond water with a starting pH of 1.6. For comparison, tests were conducted while grinding phosphate rock in plain water. Static corrosion tests in gypsum pond water also were conducted. For all alloys, the wear by erosion-corrosion (milling with gypsum pond water) was greater than the sum of erosion (milling with water) plus static corrosion. Erosion-corrosion wear was about 1,500 to 3,000 mpy for the alloyed white cast irons, 1,000 to 1,400 mpy for commercial steel ball material and type 316 stainless steel, and 600 to 900 mpy for nickel-base alloys and a high-manganese, nitrided stainless steel. Alloy costs per unit of phosphate rock 'processed favor a low-alloy, high-carbon steel or a high-manganese, nitrided stainless steel.

Jan 1, 1985

By P. L. Woolf, N. Bernstein, M. M. Fine

Continuous experimentation utilizing a 3- by 36 - foot rotary kiln was conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of simultaneous induration and reduction of magnetic taconite concentrate . Lignite , or lignite - anthracite mixtures , and green magnetite pellets (64.2 percent Fe , dry basis ) were heated in a rotary kiln to about 2,100 ° F. After separation from excess reductant , the product pellets were found to be highly reduced and acceptably hard . A total of 140 tons of prereduced pellets with an average Fe content of 79.0 percent was produced at Minneapolis and smelted in the Bureau's experimental blast furnace at Bruceton , Pa . Two additional supplies of prereduced pellets were obtained from The Steel Company of Canada , Ltd. , Hamilton , Ontario , which contained 83.8 and 91.3 percent Fe , respectively . Smelting of prereduced pellets was compared with that of unreduced pellets obtained from The Hilton Mines , Shawville , Quebec , and from the Erie Mining Co. , Hoyt Lakes , Minn . Blast furnace tests established that a substantial decrease in coke rates and higher production result from the use of prereduced pellets .

Jan 1, 1964

By D. A. Reynolds, J. D. Davis

"This work was begun in l928, with the cooperation of the American, Gas Association, and the Association contributed financial aid for that year and for the 4 years following. In 1933 financial aid was discontinued, but the Advisory Committee, under the able, Chairmanship of J. S. Haug, has continued to function through the years to the present date. Mr. Haug's annual reports have been published in the Proceedings of the American Gas Association. The purpose of this paper is to bring the index of coals tested by the Bureau of Mines-American Gas Association (EM-AGA) method up to date, to discuss development of auxiliary tests, and to outiline the uses to which the methods have been put in promoting the war effort.COALS TESTEDThe test methods developed with the advice of the Advisory Committee had been applied to 66 coals up to 1942, and an index giving the serial number, origin, and analyses of these coals was published as Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 637. Since this paper was published, 20 additional coals have been tested; the source and analyses of these coals are given in table 1. The table also refers to publications that have been issued. Complete series of tests at high, medium, and low temperatures,have been made on most of these coals, and blending tests with 20 and 30 30 percent of low-volatile coals have also been made at 900°C.; however a few low- and medium-volatile coals (60, 70, 74, 79, and 80) were bested,at high temperatures only. Those coals were mined in eastern Oklahoma and western Arkansas. The test work included low- and high-temperature assay tests, petrorraphic analyses, and plasticity tests since its inception; and for the last 20 coals of the series, expansion and oxidation tests have been made where applicable."

Jun 1, 1944

By W. L. Crentz

In Fayette County, the Pittsburgh bed has been the major source of production for almost two centuries. Although historical documentation is not available, there is evidence, that the Pittsburgh bed may have been discovered in Fayette County near Mt. Braddock, Pa., as early as 1753. The earliest known reference to coal in western Pennsylvania was recorded in 1758 by a Quaker trader, James .Kenny, who reported having seen coal in Fayette County. The production of coke from Pittsburgh coal was begun in 1841, when two 10-foot beehive ovens were erected in the Connellsville region to make coke .for shipment by river to the market. The Connellsville, region extends from Latrobe, Pa., in Westmoreland County to South of Uniontown, in Fayette County. Connellsville coke was used with great success in the Clinton furnace in 1859.

Jan 1, 1951