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By William B. Plank

Mineral engineering student enrollment in U. S. and Canadian schools for 1955-1956 is 11,408, an increase of 11 pct more than last year. The undergraduate and graduate engineering students in both countries number 251,765, or 13 pct more than last year. These figures have been released by the American Society for Engineering Education. The largest increase in the undergraduate mineral engineering group in the U. S. is in ceramic engineering, with 676 students, or 31 pct more than last year. The next largest increase is in mining which shows a gain of 13.5 pct, compared with a gain of 13.1 pct in the total undergraduate enrollment in all engineering schools approved by the Engineers' Council for Professional Development. This figure is 190,355, which approaches the prewar figure. Metallurgical undergraduates increased 13 pct; geological, 5 pct; and petroleum, 2.5 pct. This year the figures for geophysics are combined with those for geological engineering, making a total of 1610 undergraduates, of which the geophysicists comprise about one seventh.

Apr 1, 1956

By James R. Garvey

Coal reserves of the United States are enormous. Considered on the basis of proven reserves, and compared with reserves of other fuels, coal constitutes 88% of the proven recoverable energy resources of the nation. That includes oil, natural gas, oil shale and uranium used in burner reactors. Considered on the basis of "ultimate recoverable reserves", that is, those resources which can be extracted with improved technology and at somewhat higher costs and including those resources of all fuels not yet found but believed to be waiting discovery, coal still accounts for 75 % of the national total. In the U.S. hydrocarbon economy about 76% of the total energy needs are supplied by petroleum and natural gas and about 20% by coal. Domestic resources of oil and gas are running dangerously low, and assuming a continued hydrocarbon economy, the 20% supplied by coal may increase dramatically. Nearly a quarter of the petroleum consumed in the U.S. is imported. Natural gas is in shorter supply than petroleum and the problems of its importation seem at least as difficult as those of oil.

Jan 6, 1972

Polluted air and water, despoiled land and excessive noise are the unwelcome results of the population growth and a rising standard of living. The consumption of goods and services, including metal products and minerals, by all people is increasing so rapidly that civilization is in danger of destroying the environment in which it lives. This is true because every human activity affects the environment, whether it is air, water or land. While E. F. Osborn, director, U.S. Bureau of Mines, says . . . "some members of the mineral industry are reluctant to recognize environmental demands" . . . William T. Pecora Under Secretary of the U.S. Department of the Interior.. . says that, "to maintain levels of resource development and environmental quality needed to satisfy our affluence, we must trade off values rather than turn off troublesome operations." What it seems to boil down to is how much control of its operations is the mineral industry willing to accept-internal policing or strict government control? The answer lies in how well the mineral industry maintains a balance between mineral development and environmental quality.

Jan 1, 1971

By S. H. Ash

SAFETY records have improved in all branches of the mineral industry. While annual production was rising from $2 billion in 1910 to nearly $12 billion in 1950, fatalities decreased from 3539 in 1911 to 974 in 1951. And, although safety progressed under hand methods, it progresses more effectively under modern, mechanized methods. But powered devices such as electric or diesel units can in themselves create new hazards unless proper safeguards are instituted. Health Use of diesels underground is increasing. Diesel equipment has been used in construction of 34 tunnels in 16 states in the last 17 years. The 77 noncoal underground mines in 24 states using diesels underground range from mines with large open stopes to those with narrow veins, so that the ventilating problems represent a good cross-section of U. S. mining. The U. S. Bureau of Mines has received no report that anyone has suffered ill effects from the proper use of properly maintained equipment. The necessity for correct maintenance and use of satisfactory exhaust conditioners cannot be emphasized too strongly.

Jan 2, 1954

By Eugene Guccione

FOREWORD-In an interview published in the May 1975 issue of MINING ENGINEERING, one of the world's most respected scientists, nuclear physicist Hans Bethe discussed the reliability of nuclear power plants and their unmatched safety record. The Nobel laureate also refuted the anti-nuclear lobby's claims that nuclear plants emit harmful radioactive effluents. When asked whether the US has sufficient uranium resources, Dr. Bethe replied that "it depends on the time of introduction of the commercial and advanced breeder reactors which, in effect, can generate more nuclear fuel than they consume." The United States has enough U3O8 to last until the breeders can take over in 1995, said Dr. Bethe. But lie warned that extensive environmental damage would be caused if "environmentalists" succeed in delaying the development of the breeder. Any such delays, he noted, would vastly increase the demand for U3O8 in conventional reactors; this, in turn, would impose an immense burden on the US uranium mining industry, which would then have no alternative but to mine the low-grade Chattanooga deposits.

Jan 4, 1977

By C. Graeme-Barber, R. L. Bell, T. G. Langdon

An analysis is made of the formulas and ,methods used to estimate the contribution of grain boundary sliding to the overall strain of a polycrystal. The errors involved in the approximations and/or ,mistakes in earlier work are assessed quantitatively so as to make possible the critical use of previously published data. SINCE it has been found that, under conditions of very slow creep, the strain due to grain boundary sliding (?gb) may contribute as much as 80 pct of the total creep strain,1,2 it is obviously important to have reliable methods for estimating this grain boundary strain. In two recent papers Stevens3,4 has drawn attention to the pitfalls encountered in assessing ?gb. He criticizes 1) the assumptions made in the derivation of some of the formulas for ?gb, and 2) the indiscriminate averaging procedures used for obtaining the quantities substituted in these formulas. These and further criticisms of earlier work are mostly valid. Unfortunately the only formulas and procedures recommended are either impossible or very difficult to apply in practice. Furthermore no attempt is made to assess the errors involved by the earlier approximations or mistakes, and so it is not possible to make critical use of any of these early dab. The present article attempts to improve on these shortcomings by reference to empirical verification of easily applied formulas whose theoretical derivations involve some otherwise unjustifiable assumptions, and by a quantitative assessment of the errors in previous work. DEFINITIONS First it is necessary to define the terms and symbols to be used. The choice of symbols preferred here is a logical combination and extension of the v introduced by McLean5 and the u by Brunner and rant.' In Fig. 1 the two grains X and Y are displaced by the sliding vector AC. u is the component of sliding resolved along the stress axis, v is that measured perpendicular both to the stress axis and to the specimen surface, and w is that measured perpendicular to the stress axis but in the plane of the surface. Two angles define the orientation of the grain boundary: 8, between the stress axis and the surface trace of the boundary, and +, the internal angle on a longitudinal section cut perpendicular to the surface. In computing the strain resulting from the boundary displacement at all the in- dividual boundaries in a polycrystal the components u, v, or w are sometimes averaged along a longitudinal line (i.e., parallel to the stress axis), sometimes along a transverse line, and sometimes at randomly chosen boundaries. Averages obtained in these three ways are given subscripts 1, t, and r, respectively. Stevens rightly calls attention to the possibility of non-equiaxed grain shapes either at the start or at the end of deformation. In this article all values of numbers of grains per unit length will refer to measurements made before deformation. The subscripts 1 and t will be used for the number of grains per unit length obtained along longitudinal and transverse lines, r for that obtained by averaging along a number of randomly directed lines. FORMULAS FOR ?gb ?gt, as a Function of u. An obvious truth is that cgb can, in principle, be obtained by summation of all the v components at the boundaries intersected by a longitudinal line of known length I, viz.: where nl is the number of grains per unit length, parallel to the stress axis, in the unstrained specimen. There are assumptions in the analytic derivation of Eq. [I] due to Brunner and rant' but ~achinger' arrived at Eq. [la] by a rigorous method. Unfortunately the experimental procedure required by Eq. [ la] proves very difficult as boundary migration tends to obscure the points at which the longitudinal line meets the grain boundary and the errors on such measurements tend to be large, see Fig. 2. For example, on a specimen of Magnox AL 80 at a creep strain of 9.7 pct, 300 measurements of u obtained from the points of intersection of a longitudinal line with the grain boundaries gave ul = 8.95 ± 3.58 pm, or an error of ±40 pct, at the 95 pct confidence limit. These large errors due to migration may be avoided by measuring u from the separation of the segments

Jan 1, 1968

By O. D. Sherby, J. E. Dorn

For elevated temperature-constant load creep tests of a solid solution alloys, the creep strain is a function of a temperature-compensated time parameter 0 = je H/RT dt. The activation energy H is equal to o constant of about 36,000 cal per mol. The substructures resulting from a given creep stress condition are functions of the creep strain independent of temperature. Each new creep stress gives a new unique set of grain substructures; this is one of the factors responsible for the failure of the mechanical equation of state for creep. IN this report an attempt is made to correlate the creep properties of dilute a: solid solutions in aluminum with the subgrain structures that are developed during creep. The possibilities of such correlations have already been suggested by Wood et al. and others1-" who demonstrated that the subgrain structures are functions of the creep stress, creep strain, rate of creep, and temperature. Investigations by Sherby and Dorn' have shown that the creep strain, E, at constant load for dilute a solid solutions of aluminum is given by the functional relationship: e = f(8,u,) [1] where: 0 equals te-AH/RT = temperature-compensated time; t, time; AH, activation energy, - 35,800 cal per mol; R, gas constant; T, absolute temperature, above 400°K; and u,, initial creep stress. Consequently, it was anticipated that the subgrain structure that develops during a constant load creep test should also correlate with any two of the three significant variables C, 8, and Another possible correlation between the subgrain structure and the creep variables is obtained by differentiating Eq. 1 with respect to time, whence the creep rate, 2, becomes: = (2L) (2) =f (, u,) e-AHRT [2] or: e = F (c e H/RT, 0) [3] For the minimum creep rate, ;,, 8 is solely a function of U, as revealed by Eq. 1. Consequently, at the minimum creep rate Eq. 3 reduces to: = F (eAH/RT) [41 Correlations between U, and i, eAH/RT were found valid for solid solution alloys of aluminum where AH was a constant of about 35,800 cal per mol. The parameter ;, eH/RT is identical to the Zener-Hollo-mon parameter8," used by them in evaluating the tensile properties of copper and other metals. Eq. 4 suggests that the subgrain structure developed during secondary creep might be correlatable with either of the two variables 2, e H/RT or u,. Some of the solid solution aluminum alloys which were discussed in an earlier report' were also used in the present investigation. Sheets of these alloys were homogenized, cold rolled from 0.100 to 0.070 in. in thickness and then recrystallized to about the same grain size. Their chemical composition and grain size are recorded in Table I. Creep specimens were selected with their tensile axes in the rolling direction. The details for creep testing have been described10 and will not be repeated here. All creep tests were performed under constant load conditions. Experimental Results and Discussion Metallographic Structure of Creep Specimens: In order to obtain a preliminary concept of creep on the metallographic structure of high purity aluminum, the various ruptured specimens previously used to obtain the creep data for pure aluminum were polished and etched electrolytically in a dilute solution of fluoroboric acid. Oblique illumination was used to reveal the substructures which, for convenience, are shown in correlation with the vs. ;, eH/RT curve in Fig. 1. It is necessary to emphasize that the data for the curve refer to the various secondary stages of creep whereas the micrographs refer to the fractured creep specimens. Nevertheless a regular and systematic correlation is observed between E, eAH/RT (or the creep stress) and the micro-structure at fracture. For In (e, eAH/RT) = 42.3, which refers to creep at a high creep rate and a low creep temperature, the fractured aluminum specimen, as shown by the micrograph in the upper right-hand corner of Fig. 1, exhibited extensive deforma-

Jan 1, 1954

By M. E. Nicholson

IN order to understand how alloying elements influence hardenability through their effect on the rate of pearlite nucleation, it is advantageous to use a model to describe the mechanism of pearlite nucleation. The model which currently is most widely accepted has been described, among others, by Mehl et a1.1-3 and by Hultgren.4 Pearlite nucleation involves both the nucleation of ferrite and cementite.4,5 Cementite nucleates first, followed rapidly by the formation of ferrite at the cementite-austenite interface. The conclusion that cementite is the first phase to form during the process of pearlite nucleation is based, in part, on the observation that proeutectoid cementite is continuous with pearlitic cementite and that the orientation relationship between proeutectoid ferrite and austenite is not the same as that between pearlitic: ferrite and austenite.6,7 Recently, Smith" has suggested that the dissimilarity in orientation relations, instead of indicating the pearlite nucleation sequence, may be evidence that pearlite is nucleated in a grain adjacent to the one in which it is growing. Also, Modin9 as shown that ferrite in pearlite may be continuous with proeutectoid ferrite, and he has also shown that proeutectoid cementite is not always continuous with pearlitic cementite. Thus, it appears that the conclusion that cementite always initiates the pearlite nucleation process is open to serious question. The author believes that important evidence on the question of how pearlite is nucleated exists in the rates of pearlite nucleation of different steels. The following is a review and analysis of this evidence. If the nucleation of pearlite is considered as requiring the nucleation of both cementite and ferrite, then the time to nucleate pearlite consists of the time to nucleate the first phase to form, plus the time to nucleate the second phase at the advancing interface of the first. In the absence of a visible proeutectoid constituent, the second phase must be nucleated very soon after the first. If cementite is the first phase to form, the time to nucleate pearlite will be approximately equal to the time to nucleate cementite. Since the nucleation rate of a phase precipitating from solid solution increases with the degree of supersaturation, it would be expected that the rate of pearlite nucleation should increase with increasing carbon content. Digges10 has shown that the reverse is true. He determined the quenching velocity necessary to suppress pearlite formation in plain carbon steels as a function of carbon content. His results showed that pearlite formation could be suppressed with lower quenching velocities as the carbon content of the steel increased, at least up to 1.25 pct C, the highest carbon content he studied. Thus, it would appear that in plain carbon steels, in which pearlite is formed at the nose of the C-curve, the hypothesis that cementite nucleates first does not predict the observed change in nucleation rate. The validity of the current model of pearlite nucleation may be tested also by determining whether or not it predicts the relative influence of alloying elements on the nucleation of ferrite and pearlite. This can be done best by a consideration of the changes in a TTT diagram produced by a change in alloy content. Hultgren4 suggests that the general shape of a TTT diagram, as well as what constituents will form from austenite, can be predicted from the relative nucleation rates of ferrite and cementite. This is illustrated in the schematic diagram for a hypoeutectoid low alloy or plain carbon steel shown in Fig. 1. The C-curves for ferrite nucleation and for cementite nucleation are represented by AA' and CC', respectively, and the start of ferrite formation and pearlite formation are represented by AX and BC respectively. Adopting the current theory, Hultgren suggests that between X and C pearlite forms directly from austenite, since cementite nucleates more rapidly than ferrite in this temperature range. Conversely, at temperatures above Tx, ferrite is the first to nucleate and proeutectoid ferrite is formed. As proeutectoid ferrite grows, austenite becomes enriched in carbon, so that the cementite nucleation rate is increased. As a result, pearlite nucleation above temperature Tx is accelerated, beginning along BX and not along C'X. Temperature T, represents the temperature at which the nucleation rate of ferrite equals that of cementite. By extending this type of reasoning, using the principle that the nucleation rates of ferrite and cementite increase with increasing supersaturation of austenite with respect to these phases, it should be possible to predict the influence of carbon content on the shape of the isothermal transformation diagram. For a slightly higher carbon content than that of Fig. 1, the curve A A' representing the beginning of ferrite formation should be moved to the right, whereas the curve CC' representing the beginning of cementite formation should be moved to the left. For hypoeutectoid plain carbon and low alloy steels, this prediction does not agree with existing data. Instead, as the carbon content is increased, the pearlite curve moves to the right along with the ferrite curve and always appears to join it tangen-tially. This behavior is demonstrated by the TTT-curves of a series of manganese steels" shown in Fig. 2. In this figure, TTT-curves for four alloys containing 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, and 1.20 pct C are superimposed. The curves are identified in the figure legend. The letters F, P, and C are used to indicate the start of ferrite, pearlite, and cementite formation, respectively. In these steels, it appears that the nucleation of ferrite and of pearlite are related processes. As a result of the foregoing evidence, it is proposed that the formation of pearlite be considered as follows: Either ferrite or cementite may nucleate from austenite, then grow until the remaining phase is nucleated at the interface between the growing phase and austenite. (The growth of the first phase to form is assumed to be accompanied by a composition change in the adjoining austenite.) According to this model there are two modes of nucleating pearlite: 1—where cementite initiates the succession

Jan 1, 1955

I;. D. Godshall, Everett, Wash. (communication to the Secretary) : In Mr. Morse's interesting paper several statements occur which seem to require correction and comment. This is the more appropriate, since Mr. Morse has mentioned me by name, and has cited my "Review of the Russell Process,"* so that silence on my part might be taken as indicating an assent which I cannot give. On the first page of his paper Mr. Morse says that the " goingback " of chlorination was " the only difficulty encountered at Aspen," and adds that he has " never seen any explanation " of the cause. The plain inference is that he now fills this complete

Jan 1, 1896

By E. H. Mohr

At the McGill concentrator of the Nevada Consolidated Copper Co., all flotation operations have been carried out in Forrester cells since November, 1926. In respect to cost of operation, the new cell has proved to be superior to the Callow, which it supplanted, and its incorporation in the flow sheet has resulted in a marked improvement in the metallurgy. Before citing the advantages of the new machine over the old, it should be explained that the Forrester has not only replaced the Callow, but it has made possible the elimination of a number of tables as well. When Callow cells were in use, table concentration preceded flotation. The ball mill pulp was elevated, by means of air lifts, to roughing Wilfley tables situated two floors directly above the flotation floor. On an intermediate floor were additional tables which cleaned the concentrate from those above. The finished table concentrate constituted approximately 60 per cent. of the total mill production, and contained about 40 per cent, of the recovered copper. The table tailings were returned to the classifiers, the overflow from which went to the flotation cells and the oversize to the ball mills. As soon as the Forrester cells were installed, this tabling operation was discontinued. The ball mill pulp now discharges into the classifiers direct, without the intermediate tabling. It was impracticable to ernploy the present flow sheet when Callow cells were in use, for the reason that unless the great,er part of the heavy mineral was first removed, it accumulated on the mats and adversely affected the flotation operation. By tabling ahead of flotation, it was practicable to maintain the concentrator at 10 to 20 per cent. greater capacity (depending up on the pyrite contnt of the ore) than was possible by flotation alone. This was due to the necessity for finer grinding in the latter case. Even though the table conecntrates contained only 6 to 8 per cent'. copper content, the low smelting costs made it advantageous to operate at high mill capacity, at the cost of low grade of product. Standard Section equipment With the old flow sheet, a standard section consisted of four ball mills and classifiers, one air. lift, 20 roughing tables, 10 cleaner tables, 12 primary

Jan 1, 1928

By Henry R. Linden

The demand for natural gas continues to increase at higher than anticipated rates, partly because of its widening price advantage over most other fossil fuels when the cost of air-pollution control is included. However, there are clear indications that the natural gas supply from the conliguous 48 states and continental shelves will not keep up with this rapid growth in demand indefinitely. Projections are presented which define the extent of potential deficiencies from the 1970's to the year 2000. Among the sources of supplemental gas - imported pipeline natural gas from Canada and Mexico, tanker import of liquefied natural gas, and synthetic pipeline gas from coal and oil shale -by far the most abundant at potentially competitive costs is pipeline gas from coal. The state of development and relative economics of the various coal gasification processes are reviewed. It is shown that synthetic pipeline gas could become a very substantial market for bituminous coal and lignite at current mine-mouth prices - 60-70 million tons of coal for each trillion cubic feet of synthetic pipeline gas produced. This corresponds to only slightly more than the current annual increase in gas demand. Although annual discoveries (gross additions to proved reserves) of natural gas in the United States are still on a general upward trend from the current level of 22 trillion cu ft annually, most forecasters do not expect this to increase substantially in the foreseeable future. For example, the updated (to include 1966 and 1967 data) mathematical model of natural gas discovery and production in the U.S. developed by the Institute of Gas Technology (IGT)' projects that discoveries will level out at about 25 trillion cu ft annually in the late 1970's and during the 1980's and then decline to about 21 trillion cu ft by the year 2000 (Fig. 1). This adds up to a new supply for the period 1968-2000 of about 790 trillion cu ft. Experts who usually reflect the producers' viewpoint, such as Radford L. Schantz of Foster Associates,* are relatively more pessimistic. In contrast, a forecast just made by the U.S. Dept. of the Interior is much more optimistic.3 It assumes an increase in gas discoveries of 2.2% per year over the period 1965-80, reaching about 30 trillion cu ft in 1980. If this rate of increase were extended to the year 2000, annual discoveries would reach 46 trillion cu ft at that time, for a total over the period 1968-2000 of about 1100 trillion cu ft. To these forecasts of new gas discoveries must be added proved reserves of roughly 290 trillion cu ft,4 bringing total U.S. supplies for the rest of the century to nearly 1100 trillion cu ft (IGT) and possibly as high as 1400 trillion cu ft (U.S. Dept. of the Interior). This is approximately the same range as that of two estimates of total remaining recoverable natural gas supply: Potential Gas Committee, 980 trillion cu ft5 and IGT, 1450 trillion cu ft.6 Only the 1965 estimate by the U.S. Geological Survey7 suggests that economically recoverable natural gas supplies will not be exhausted around the end of the century. These forecasts are, naturally, based on the assumption that changes in technological, economic, and regulatory environment as they affect the gas industry will be of an evolutionary, not revolutionary, nature. The various forecasts of potential natural gas supply must now be compared to forecasts of natural gas demand (Table I). The general consensus is that the recent Future Requirements Committee projection to 1990' (extended to the year 2000 by the most recent U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) projection9) represents the minimum gas requirements (Table 11). They add up to a total of 1030 trillion cu ft for the period 1968-2000. Even this minimum anticipated gas demand exceeds the total remaining supply estimate by the Potential Gas Committee and would nearly exhaust the proved reserves plus new discoveries projected by IGT. The supply situation would appear much tighter if the demand projections of the Texas Eastern Transmission Gorp.10 and the American Gas Assn.(A.GA.)'' were used (Table I). Yet, these higher forecasts probably do not include the effects of such new markets as gas fuel cells, use of liquefied natural gas as a transport fuel, etc. They also may not fully reflect the impact of air quality control on the fuel market. Obviously, the probable discrepancy between projected supply and demand can only be accommodated in four ways. 1) Rapid increase in exploration and drilling activity to provide new supplies in the amount projected by the optimistic U.S. Dept. of the Interior forecast, coupled with an increase in net pipeline imports from Canada and Mexico from the present 0.5 trillion cu ft per year

Jan 1, 1970

By J. B. Darby, P. A. Beck

IN a previous publication,' the 1200°C isothermal section of the Cr-Mo-CO system was surveyed. It was found that starting from the binary (Cr,Co)a, the u phase extends deep into the ternary system in the form of a narrow band, which, when extrapo-

Jan 1, 1956

Coal was found in many places in Montana by the early explorers and trappers but no commercial development was made until 1876, and very little coal was produced before 1885. All available data are given in Table 79 taken from U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 356. [ ]

Jan 1, 1942

By Paul W. Chase

Centralized process control has received increasing emphasis in recent years. Its application at U. S. Steel's Minntac facility for production of taconite pellets is discussed in this paper. A brief description of the flowsheet will provide background for discussion of the process instrumentation and digital system.

Jan 1, 1969

By R. R. Vandervoort

The creep behavior of Nb(Cb), Ta, Mo, and W was determined under conditions of constant atomic dif-fzisivity, constant stress to elastic modulus ratio, and nearly equivalent grain size, and the steady-state creep rates obtained from these tests were correlated with calculated stacking fault energies for the metals. These results, in conjunction with similar data for several fccMetals,13 suggest that stacking fault energy may influence the creep strength ofbcc metals. The interrelationship between steady-state creep rate, subgrain size, and stacking fault energy was examined. It was found that the subgrain size for a given creep stress, increased as stacking fault energy increased, but that this relationship did not cormpletely account for the effect of stacking fault energy on creep rate. The crystallography and energetics of stacking fault formation in bcc metals has been discussed by a num-ber of authors,1-5 and impurity stabilized stacking faults on (112) planes have been observed in Nb,6,7 w,8,9 Fe,] and V" by transmission electron microscopy. However, a crucial question is whether or not stack-ing faults influence the mechanical strength of bcc metals. Potentially, stacking faults could increase strength by reducing the mobility of the partial dis-locations bounding the fault, by acting as barriers to slip dislocations, and by retarding the climb of dislo-cations during high-temperature deformation. The objective of this study was to seek a correlation be-tween creep strength and stacking fault energy for several bcc metals; namely, Nb, Ta, Mo, and W. The creep behavior of most polycrystalline metals and alloys at high temperatures and moderate stresses can be described by the following relation:11,12 im=Af(s) where i, = minimum creep rate, A = constant, j(s) = a function involving metallurgical structure, a = applied stress, E = average elastic modulus at the test tempera-ture, w = constant (equal to 5 for most pure metals), D = diffusion coefficient. One factor in the structure function F(s) which sig- R. R. VANDERVOORT, Member AlME is Research Metallurgist, Process and Materials Development Division, Chemistry Department, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Livermore, Calif. Manuscript submitted February 28, 1969. IMD nificantly affects the creep resistance of fcc metals is stacking fault energy, and creep rate has been shown to vary directly with stacking fault energy to the 3.5 power." In the latter investigation, four fcc metals of widely different stacking fault energies (Ag, Cu, Ni, and Al) were creep tested at a constant stress to modulus ratio of 1.21 x 10-4, at a constant diffusivity of 2.7 x 10-12 sq cm per sec, and at nearly equivalent grain sizes of about 0.7 mm. The creep data were then correlated with stacking fault energies. In the present study, a similar procedure was followed. All materials used in this work were consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques. Impurity contents in the as-received materials are listed in Table I. Chemical analyses showed that no measurable contamination of the test specimens occurred during pretest annealing treatments or creep testing. Specimens with a gage section 0.75 by 0.125 by 0.050 in. were creep tested in tension in a vacuum of less than 10-9 torr. Deformation at temperature was measured by tracking fiducial marks on the gage section of the specimen with an optical comparator. Optical deformation measurements also permitted observation of the macroscopic characteristics of the deformation Table I. Typical Specimen Impurity Content, ppm Nb Ta Mo W C 45 10 155 6 O 185 30 4 10 N 30 6 3 2 H 5 I 1 <1 als 3 10 2 15 Ca <5 I3 5 Cr 5 <3 10 <5 Cu 10 50 2 15 Fc 10 10 150 35 Ni 2 150 20 <5 Si <I0 1 3 <10 Ta 100 Ti 10 8 1 Zi 15 50 1 3 Table II. Test Conditions for Constant Stress-Modulus Ratio of 6 X 10.&apos; and Constant Diffusivity of 2.7 X 10-12 sq cm per see, and Grain Size Values for the Given Pretest Annealing Treatments Literature references Pretest Annealing for E and D Treatment Stress, Temperature, ___"&apos;Values__ Grain Tempera-Metal psi "C E D Size, mm ture, .C Time hr Nb 745 1525 14 15 to 17 0.83 1650 I Ta 1220 1770 18 19.20 O.91 1800 I Mo 1975 1630 18 21 0.77 2200 I W 2140 2265 18 22 040 2400 5

Jan 1, 1970

By J. B. Wagner, p. Hembree

The iron tracer diffusion coefficient of umstite has been measured at 110(fC across the phase field and at a single composition at 800°C. Assuming a simple cation vacancy model the tracer diffusion coefficient was found to be a linear function of the cation vacancy concentration at 1100°C. The equation is D = 3 x 20 29 where denotes the concentration of vacancies in numbers per cc. The tracer work at 800°C was carried out to investigate the reported "pinning" of tracer to the wustite surface at low temperatures. No evidence for the "pinning" of the tracer was found at 800°C in COz-CO gas mixtures. HIMMEL, Mehl, and Birchenall,&apos; Carter and Richardson,2 and Desmarescaux and La combe3 have measured the diffusion of iron tracer in wustite at several temperatures and compositions. The present work was undertaken to extend the measurements over a large composition range at 1100°C and to resolve certain apparent discrepancies in the data, expecially at lower temperatures. EXPERIMENTAL Wustite was prepared by oxidizing rectangular iron plates* in C02-CO mixtures. The samples were •The iron was supplied by the Battelle Memorial Institute courtesy of the American Iron and Steel Institute. The analysis is presented in Table I. quenched. Due to the inward flow of cation vacancies during oxidation, the center of the sample contained a thin void. The edges of the wustite slab were sanded until the sample could be split into two parts. Each part was then sanded on the front and back flat area until a smooth surface was obtained. The specimens were then replaced in the furnace and equilibrated at llOO°C in a predetermined COa-CO mixture by methods described elsewhere.4"6 The specimens were again quenched and the surfaces were lightly sanded to remove any roughness following the first equilibration. The specimens were then reequi lib rated in the same C02-CO mixture for thirty minutes in order to relieve any mechanical damage on the surface due to the polishing. The specimens were then quenched and the tracer was applied by an electroplating technique. The work of Carter and ~ichardson&apos; demonstrated that there was no systematic difference in the iron tracer diffusion coefficient in wustite if the tracer was plated, dried, or evaporated on the specimen. In the present study a piece of filter paper was saturated with an iron chloride solution of pH <* 3 that contained the tracer FeS5. The wustite was placed on the filter paper and made the cathode. A current density of 0.4 to 0.6 ma per sq cm was passed for about five to ten minutes. The thickness of the tracer layer was estimated to be about 7 x lom6 cm. This estimate was made by considering the area plated, the current flow, and time for plating and the activity of the iron in the plating solution. Different areas of the specimen were counted using a collimator to determine the uniformity of the tracer. Any specimen which exhibited a variation from the initial count rate (about 1500 cpm) by more than 15 pct was rejected. An estimate of the time necessary to convert the thin layer of iron tracer to wustite was made using the data of Pettit and wagner." he estimated time was 1 sec at 1100°C assuming linear oxidation kinetics. The shortest diffusion anneals were 1800 sec. The samples were suspended in the hot zone of a furnace by two platinum wires. Two separate specimens were run at the same time. Only the edges of each sample were in contact with the wires. The C02-CO gas of the same composition as that used in the pre-diffusion anneals flowed freely around the samples at a linear velocity of 0.9 cm per sec. To initiate a run, the specimens were lowered from the cold zone of a furnace to the hot zone by a magnetic lowering device." bout 60 sec were required for lowering. To terminate a run, the sample was withdrawn from the hot zone to the cold zone. Time zero for the beginning of the experiment was taken when the sample blended into the red glow of the furnace and conversely for the end of the experiment. The surface decrease method of measuring the tracer diffusion coefficient was used to collect the data. This method requires that counting geometry be reproducible because the specimen is counted before the diffusion anneal and after the anneal. A special jig was constructed for each specimen so the specimen could be removed from the jig and returned to the jig such that the well geometry was reproducible.

Jan 1, 1970

By Geo. H. Eldridge

This sketch of the Florence oil-field, presented to the Institute by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, is accompanied with a map, Fig. 1, the topography of which has been taken from a field-manuscript of the Survey. The scale of the map and

Jan 1, 1892

By Fred N. Kissell, Maurice Deul

When coal is broken during mining, some of the methane trapped in the coal is released. Some recent investigations by the U.S. Bureau of Mines have shown that this methane released by breakage is only a small proportion of the total methane emission into the working section.

Jan 1, 1975

By Oliver S. North

Reserves of perlite rock in the western section of the United States are immense. A geological report prepared for the Union Pacific RR showed proved tonnage of over 400 million tons in southern Nevada alone. Yet the perlite industry is not large, and most of the mines are relatively small. There are indications that perlite processing, thus far largely in the hands of relatively small com¬panies, is becoming concentrated in a few large companies. For economic reasons the bulk of perlite sold in crude form has come from three or four pro¬ducers, although many individual operators have sold small quantities to limited lists of purchasers. Perlite is one of ultra-lightweight aggregates. Owing to its outstanding qualities as an aggregate, variety of uses, and ultimate economy of use, it has enjoyed considerable popularity in this country in recent years. Marked foreign interest also has been evinced in this material.

Jan 2, 1955

By Mark David Rankin

This paper represents a general assessment of the primary factors driving the market for mobile offshore drilling rigs and the utility of those factors as choice variables for the offshore drilling program planner.

Jan 1, 1982