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By G. Howell Clevenger, Bhupendranath Ray

Formerly great divergence of opinion existed in regard to the influence of copper in steel, as affecting its various physical properties. More recently the investigations of Stead,l Breuil,2 Wigham,3 Burgess and Aston: Ball and Wingham,5 Miiller; Dillner,7 and others have shown fairly good agreement in the major points. Copper steel has been shown by these investigators to possess special properties which make it valuable for certain uses. The general range of composition of the useful alloys of copper and iron, and of copper, iron, and carbon, has been quite definitely established, for the former by Burgess and Aston,8 and for the latter by Breuil9 and Stead.10 Stead11 has removed one difficulty in reconciling certain of the earlier data by calling particular attention to the influence 'of carbon in copper steels. Another point which caused confusion in the earlier investigations, particularly in regard to " red-shortness," was the presence of sulphur. Failure to note the presence of sulphur often led to attributing " red-shortness" to the presence of small amounts of copper. Turner12 has called attention to the fact that where copper exists in an iron ore it often occurs as the sulphide, so that the presence of copper in steel made from such ores might also, necessarily, mean the presence of sulphur. It is evident that the effect in this case might be quite different than where pure copper was added.

Jan 1, 1914

By A. W. Fahrenwald

FLOTATION practice in Idaho is now about 13 years old. The advance has been steady during these 13 years. The operators have been alert to take advantage of the newest developments and they have themselves made a constant effort to improve their work. The metallurgical improvements are due to the development of (1) better equipment, (2) better reagents, and (3) better understanding and control of the process. During the eight years the writer has been in this district, there has been continuous experimentation by several companies to improve the ore dressing by flotation methods. Gravity concentration has fought hard to hold its place, and although it is true that gravity processes have been improved during this period, nevertheless, in several of the important mills of the district the few tables that managed to hang on have finally given way. On the straight-lead ores, tables and jigs are still used; and, due to better classification, their hold on this job has been strengthened. ORES OF THE DISTRICT The ores of the district are of two general classes: (1) clean lead ores, such as those from the Bunker Hill and Hecla mines, and (2) complex lead-zinc ores. The general impression prevails that the clean lead ores, class 1, are simple and that it is easy to obtain high recoveries and good grade products. This, in a way, is a false impression; there is quite a high percentage of locked middling in these ores at 100 and 150-mesh sizes. Improved classification preparatory to table treatment of this type of ore has made it possible to segregate effectively a high-grade middling which is further comminuted and floated. The complex lead-zinc ores of the district, of which the ore from the Morning mine of the Federal Mining & Smelting Co. is a typical example, always have presented a difficult problem. It always has been comparatively easy to make a clean lead concentrate, but it never has been possible to concentrate sphalerite with a-specific gravity of 4.10 from siderite of gravity 3.88. Also, a large percentage of the galena and sphalerite of this class of ore refuses to separate out until the crushing has been carried

Jan 1, 1928

By Wilhelm Borchers

IN all special branches of the chemical and metallurgical industries, in which large electric furnaces became necessary for carrying out new processes or for the improvement of old ones, the development of the electric furnaces took place on much the same lines. The endeavors to make a success of a new idea brought forth many ingenious designs, which, however, almost without exception, furnished the proof that the safest and shortest way to practical success is the utmost simplicity of construction of the necessary apparatus. Our knowledge of the qualities of materials for building electric furnaces and of the constituents of the furnace-charges, especially their electric conductivity and their chemical affinity . towards one another at high temperatures, is still far from being complete, and from this fact we must conclude that the smaller the number of elements in the construction of a furnace, the fewer the number of unreliable factors both in the construction and in the operation of the electric furnace. This conclusion deserves special attention when an electric furnace for making steel has to be chosen from the constantly growing number of inventions, inasmuch as the chief con¬stituent of steel, the element iron, is a substance which in its liquid phase has so great an affinity fir those elements which are to be removed from the charge, that it is very difficult to comply with the following conditions: 1, to beat the refining-slag to the highest point of its chemical activity ; to prevent the iron from entering the slaw, or, where this cannot be done, to make it enter so that it finally appears in the end-product

Jan 1, 1910

By D. C. Lindley, D. H. Gaucher

The displacement of oil by water in a waterflood project is accomplished by the action of transient viscous, gravitational and capillary forces which drive fluid through interconnecting pore spaces toward production wells. The relative importance of each of these forces to the effectiveness of the displacement and the production history depends on properties of the reservoir itself and the manner in which it is operated. There has been considerable discussion'-3 concerning the importance of these factors and the extent to which they control the performance of individual waterflood projects. No data have been presented, however, to demonstrate the effect on waterflood behavior of variations in rock permeability, water-injection rates and mobility ratios in three-dimensional reservoir systems in which viscous, gravitational and capillary forces are allowed to assume the proper relative influence on fluid flow. Much information relevant to water flooding has been gained from the study of field case histories. But, the complexity of the systems involved, the difficulty of defining geometry and obtaining sufficient data, and the fact that the same reservoir is never flooded twice with the same initial conditions, all obscure the role of process variables such as rate. Further, mathematical calculations of waterflood behavior are restricted at this time by available mathematical techniques to highly simplified situations. Scaled models, however, do offer an approach at the present time to evaluation of the effects of the pertinent variables. Several investigators have predicted prototype reservoir behavior from observations of model waterflood performance under a variety of conditions. Two-dimensional aspects of waterflood pattern efficiency have been investigated by Muskat, Aronofsky, Dyes, et al, raig, et al,' and Rapoport, et al. he effects of gravity segregation, viscous fingering and permeability stratification have also been studied in two-dimensional models. Craig, et al," studied the importance of gravitational forces on frontal displacement in three-dimensional models with wells on a five-spot pattern. This work in- vestigates the tendency for water to segregate in homogeneous reservoirs because of gravity and to under-run the oil for a range of water-inject ion rates. The effects of permeability stratifications were investigated by these authors using miscible fluids to simulate water-channeling through permeable strata in systems of negligible capillary force. In this investigation, a three-dimensional model of a five-spot pattern flood was designed to represent typical prototype conditions, and the sand and liquid properties were selected so that capillary, gravitational and viscous pressure gradients were scaled. It was not, however, possible to achieve exact similitude regarding viscous fingering when the more viscous oil was used. The effects of rock stratification on waterflood behavior were studied by changing both the permeability ratio and the position of the more permeable sand stratum in a two-layered, horizontal model. For each type of stratification, constant-rate floods were performed and the rates were varied, in separate experiments, over a tenfold range. To observe the effect of mobility ratio on flood performance, two series of constant-injection-rate floods were performed on the most highly stratified reservoir at a water-oil viscosity ratio of one.

By Max Hebgen

Within the State of Montana the streams rise in the high mountains at. an elevation of from 5,000 to 8,000 ft. These streams leave the State line both east and west at elevations from 3,500 to 2,400 ft. It is, therefore, apparent. that all these streams have an average fall of 3,000 ft. within the confines of the. State, and many opportunities are presented on all streams. for the development of power, by taking advantage of the natural fall. It is probable that 1,000,000 h. p. can :be developed in the State of Montana. I. NATURAL FEATURES OF STATE AFFECTING POWER DEVELOPMENT. The main. range of the Rocky mountains, forming the Continental Divide, cuts the State of Montana into two parts. The eastern part is drained by the Missouri river and its tributaries, the Madison; Jefferson, Gallatin and Yellowstone, rivers. The western part is drained by tributaries to the Columbia river, the Clarks fork and the Kootenai river. The Clarks fork in turn is formed by the junction of Missoula and Flathead rivers, the latter, draining Flathead lake. The western part of the State. is mountainous and the eastern part is comparatively level. As a natural result the rivers in the western part are capable of generating large amounts of power, while in the eastern part of the State natural power sites are much fewer and farther apart. It also follows that in the mountainous districts large amounts of power are required for the mining industry, while in the eastern part of the State, which is principally devoted to agriculture, power is required in smaller quantities. ?

Jan 8, 1913

By R. H. Richards

In October, 1891,I read a paper before the Institute on a "A HandTelescope for Stadia-Work" (Bans., xx., 732), and promised to report at an early date some results showing the degree of accuracy attained with the instrument. I am now able to report on these results and also on certain improvements that I have made in the target since the first paper was read. I may say that I prefer the title, "Prismatic Stadia-Telescope," to that used in my earlier paper, for while the instrument can be used with perfect satisfaction for short sights up to, say, 300 to 600 feet when held in the hand, it is impossible to read milch longer distances without the use of a tripod, as a steady support for the instrument. Results are here given upon four combinations of prism and telescope. No. 1. A telescope made by Alvan Clark & Sons, 3-inch objective, 28 inches focal length, magnifying 60 diameters, the prism covering half the objective: Feet measured Reading of Distance reduced Reeding of rod pro by tape. the rod. to feet. portional to 100 ft. 127.66 1.1825 100 .92629 211.35 1.9585 100 .92666 326.59 3.0265 100 .92669 484.88 4.4925 100 ,92652 606.91 5.6225 100 .92641 Average,,92651 The value of this prism therefore is .92651 feet on the rod for 100 feet of distance, or 1 foot on the rod corresponds to 107.931 feet of distance. No. 2. A Bardou telescope having a 1-inch objective, magnifying 20 diameters, and a prism covering half the objective:

Jan 1, 1893

By FREDERICK W. BRADLEY

MINING is one of the world's oldest industries and has pioneered the civilization of all new lands. Today, mining is not only one of the essential and basic industries of the world, but it is constantly growing in magnitude and becoming more important. We think that the most of our mining is done in the western portion of this country, but in the old State of Pennsylvania mines and products derived from minerals account for about two-thirds of the entire productive wealth of the State. As our forests are denuded, mining furnishes substitutes for timber in the way of concrete, gypsum board, etc. ; and as civilization increases the wants of mankind, mining is producing metals and minerals of every kind in increasing quantities. For example: during the past ten years the per capita consumption of copper in the United States has increased 49 per cent, to 14.56 Ib.; that of lead has increased 35 per cent, to 12.24 lb.; and that of zinc has increased 70 per cent, to 9.57 Ib. The consumption in European countries is about one-half of this, and there are other countries with large populations where there is virtually no consumption; so when all other countries catch up in consumption with our country, you can see what an enormous demand there is going to be for the metals, even to the extent of having to find substitutes for copper, lead, and zinc.

Jan 1, 1929

By Bernard MacDonald

Introduction. OF the treatment of the slime-pulp of gold- and silver-ores by cyanidation, agitation is an essential part. When prepared for treatment, this pulp, consisting of ore reduced to such fineness that approximately 80 per cent. of it will pass through a 200-mesh screen, is mixed with a certain proportion of water, carrying in solution the quantity of cyanide (KCN) and other chemicals required. The water-constituent of the pulp thus prepared usually ranges from 1 to 2 parts by weight to 1 of the dry ore. Thus constituted', the pulp is charged into treatment-tanks, the shape and capacity of which vary, according to the quantity of pulp to be treated daily and the method of agitation to be employed. Tanks have no other function in a cyanide-plant than that of being economical and convenient containers or receptacles for holding the pulp, solution, or water used in the operations. It is by agitation that the solids in the pulp charged into the tanks are kept in suspension in, and mixed with, the solution in the proper proportions required for the treatment. If the proper mixture of solution to solids be determined to be 2 to 1 by weight (which is, approximately, 5 to 1 by volume), this proportion should be maintained in every part of the charge ; -that is, each solid particle of the pulp, whether it be of 180- or 400-mesh size, should, be surrounded by five times its own volume of solution throughout the whole period of treatment. The reason is, that the amount of chemicals ascertained to be necessary for dissolving the gold and silver contained in the solids, is held in uniform solution in the water-constituent of the pulp, and, therefore, the determined proportions of solution and solids must be maintained at all times during treat-

Apr 1, 1912

Organization Place Date 1919 National Drainage Congress St. Louis, Mo. Nov. 11-13 American Mining Congress St. Louis, Mo. Nov. 1.7-21 Canadian Mining Institute Vancouver, B. C. Nov.. 26-28 American Society of Mechanical Engineers:.... New York, N. Y. Dec. 2-5 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Savannah, Ga. Dec. 3-6 Geological Society of America...; Boston, Mass. Dec. 29-31. American Society of Heating and Ventilating 1920 Engineers New York, N. Y. Jan. Mining and Metallurgical Society of America ... New York, N. Y. Jan. 13. American Institute of Min. and Met. Engineers... New York, N. Y. Feb. 16-19 American Ceramic Society Philadelphia, Pa. Feb. 23-26

Jan 11, 1919

By Robert S. Archer

THE proper material of construction for a given purpose is that material which meets the requirements satisfactorily at the lowest ultirnatc cost. It is consistent with this principle that most aluminum castings are made of an alloy containing about 8 per cent. copper. This alloy possesses mechanical properties satisfactory for general engineering purposes together with manufacturing characteristics leading to the production of finished castings at low cost. It is to the aluminum industry what gray iron is to the iron and steel industry. Just as some services require "semi-steel," malleable castings or steel castings instead of gray iron, there is a certain and growing demand for aluminum castings of superior strength or ductility, or both. Since the beginning of .the industry producers and others have sought to develop alloys or processes by which such castings could be made. Out of these efforts have emerged many alloy compositions and special processes, of which only a few have had sufficient merit to survive. It is the purpose of this paper to describe those which seem to the authors to offer the greatest promise for the production on a commercial scale of aluminum castings of superior mechanical properties, with special reference to heat-treated castings. The suitability of an alloy or process for actual manufacture is affected by so many factors that the problem of appraisal is not a simple one. Since this is such an important part of the whole subject it is proposed to discuss briefly some of the requirements. The final verdict is of course the result of commercial trial and experience. It will therefore, perhaps, be profitable to employ a somewhat historical method of treatment in discussing the subject of alloy development. The alloys or processes to be used in the production of aluminum castings are to be considered from the standpoint of their effects on both the utility and the cost of the finished casting. Specific gravity and mechanical properties come under the first head, while the properties

Jan 1, 1927

By C. P. Sandberg

Notwithstanding the growing importance of this subject, no work specially devoted to it has hitherto been published. Having had to inspect during the last twenty years nearly a million tons of iron and steel rails for various countries, I have obtained experience of what rail manufacturers can practically execute, as well as of what railway engineers practically require. Bearing these two points in mind, I have from time to time published observations with a view to unite both interests,—that of the producer and that of the consumer,—and to reduce the specifications and the forms of sections to standards, or types, in order to facilitate the execution of the works and to improve the construction of permanent way. The Swedish government railways, as well as private companies owning railways in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark,.have during the time above mentioned consulted with me and intrusted to me their rail inspection. I therefore owe to these countries much of the opportunity which I have enjoyed of gaining experience and position. Next to Sweden, America is the country which has most liberally favored me with its confidence in placing these matters in my hands. Through circumstances not under my control there has been little exportation to, and less work done by Europe for, America during the last six years; but the recent revival of the rail trade has been the more gratifying to mo, seeing that almost all the importers of American rails are still specifying for the Sandberg rail sections and inspection. It is therefore with feelings of gratitude that I now beg to lay before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and I hope, through that body, before the American railway world, the results of some experience which I have gained in the execution of work for their country, and which therefore belongs rightfully to

Jan 1, 1881

By C. P. Sandberg

INTRODUCTION. NOTWITHSTANDING the growing importance of this subject, no work specially devoted to it has hitherto been published. Having had to inspect during the last twenty years nearly a million tons of iron and steel rails for various countries, I have obtained experience of what rail manufacturers can practically execute, as well as of what railway engineers practically require. Bearing these two points in mind, I have from time to time published observations with a view to unite both interests, -that of the producer and that of the consumer,-and to reduce the specifications and the forms of sections to standards, or types, in order to facilitate the execution of the works and to improve the construction of permanent way. The Swedish government railways, as well as private companies owning railways in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, have during the time above mentioned consulted with me and intrusted to me their rail inspection. I therefore owe to these countries much of the opportunity which I have enjoyed of gaining experience and position. Next to Sweden, America is the country which has most liberally favored me with its confidence in placing these matters in my hands. Through circumstances not under my control there has been little exportation to, and less work done by Europe for, America during the last six years ; but the recent revival of the rail trade has been the more gratifying to me, seeing that almost all the importers of American rails are still specifying for the Sandberg rail sections and inspection. It is therefore with .feelings of gratitude that I now beg to lay before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and I hope, through that body, before the American railway world, the results of some experience which I have gained in the execution of work for their country, and which therefore belongs rightfully to

Jan 1, 1881

By H. O. Hofman

WITH the exception of lead sulphate, all common metallic sulphates are completely decomposed upon heating into metallic oxide, sulphur trioxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen. Some give up their trioxide readily at a low temperature, others require considerable heat and much time to be completely freed from sulphur. Kerl in 1881 arranged the principal metallic sulphates as they are decomposed by a rising temperature in the following order: silver, iron, copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt, manganese and lead, lead sulphate being decomposed only slightly at a white heat. The researches of Bradford, published in 1903, show, however, that ferrous sulphate is decom¬posed at 590° C., cupric sulphate at G53° C. and argentic sulphate at 1,095° C. By the present investigation it will be seen that zinc sulphate is decomposed at 739° C. As far then as our present knowledge goes, the order in which the decomposition of the leading metallic sulphates takes place is the one given in Table I.

Jan 1, 1905

By CLAYTON C. BALL

In the year 1948, more than ever before, the coal industry established itself on the threshold of a new and exciting future expansion. While production did not equal the wartime and peacetime peaks of 1944 and 1947, it was, in review, a good coal year. During the latter part of the year a combination of mild weather, record stock piling, and general business slackening reduced coal demand to the extent that marginal mines suspended operations, while mines remaining active found it necessary to renew their attention to producing better products at lower operating costs.

Jan 1, 1949

COUNCIL OF EDUCATION OF AIME (Formerly Mineral Industry Education Division) Established as a Division January 15, 1932 Established as a Council February 26, 1957 John C Calhoun, Jr, Chairman 0 Cutler Shepard, Vice-Chairman Thomas A Read, Secretary-Treasurer Dept of Mining & Metallurgical Engrg University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois COUNCIL OF ECONOMICS OF AIME (Formerly Mineral Economics Division) Established as a Division December 15, 1948 Established as a Council February 26, 1957 Louis C Raymond, Chairman Lorin A Cranson, Vice-Chairman Henry T Mudd, Vice-Chairman Adam K Stricker, Jr, Vice-Chairman Paul F Yopes, Secretary-Treasurer U S Bureau of Mines Albany, Oregon

Jan 1, 1957

By E. T. Knight, John D. Gill

IN ITS capacity for service to the public the oil industry is truly gargantuan. But it is only in this respect that the industry is the voracious, many-headed, many-armed and many-handed creature it has been so often painted by those who know it not too intimately and only from the outside. Contrasted sharply with the immensity of the service rendered is the relatively modest share of the national income which has gone to those who provided the tools and the mental and manual labor with which the service was performed. No doubt the relative meagreness of the re- ward was the result of a combination of fortuitous circumstances respecting the nature and accessibility of the industry's raw material and the extensive development and application of the most advanced technology, spurred by an intense competition.

Jan 1, 1940

By Charles H. Shamel

I fear most of the Institute members are already weary of the perennial controversy about the apex law. I feel that way about it myself now, though I have been guilty of considerable contribution- to the discussion in the past. The discussion does not seem to perceptibly influence previously held views and I would not again break into print on the subject but for the urgent invitation of the Chairman of our Law Committee. This energetic and able member has firmly determined to secure a revision of the mining law and among other things to eliminate the so-called apex provision from the U. S. mining statutes. He is, however, fair about it and has invited me to make ((the strongest possible argument in its favor." I am suspicious that he is acting on the psychological principle that it is usually easier to convince an audience against a cause vigorously but unsuccessfully defended than against one wholly mute. Nevertheless, I realize that personally he wishes me no harm, much as he hates the apex law, and so am willing that the Institute have whatever benefit may accrue from my taking up again the unpopular side of the discussion. I say this because the attitude of a large part of our "articulate" membership seems irreconcilably hostile; their minds are made up; favorable consideration is foreclosed; and they become impatient and even sarcastic at any attempt to elucidate a favorable view of the apex law. The exact question for discussion at the present time is not whether on abstract, or any other considerations, the apex law is the best possible rule, but the very different proposition whether, after nearly 50 years of statutory life and much longer as a practically universal miners' custom, it is now just and expedient to repeal the apex law. At this point it seems to me that we may profitably devote a paragraph or two to the subject of the origin of law in general, as we are presumed to be considering the subject from the high viewpoint of the general welfare of the nation. The most comprehensive and accurate definition of law in the legal sense is, that it is the body of rules for the regulation of human conduct which is enforced by the State, that is, by the nation.l Legal

Jan 1, 1915

By F. X. Meyer

THE United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company maintains an ore-purchasing department for procurement of custom tonnages of milling and smelting ores and concentrates for treatment at its Midvale plant. Arrangements with other companies provide for treatment of Company and custom zinc concentrates. Location of the Midvale plant in the heart of the Western mining country makes it possible to serve shippers from these nine producing states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. Shipments from most of these states travel over main-line railroads, delivery being made at Midvale within a short time after billing of the shipment. Shipments varying in size from a few sacks to carloads can be handled at

Jan 1, 1948

By Smith, George Otis

THE matter that I have on my mind this evening is engineering's need of an open forum. Our fathers of three centuries ago were pro-testanta for freedom of speech and thought in matters religious; later, our fathers were revolutionists for freedom of speech in matters political; until today freedom of speech has become so universal throughout the land that even in the sanctuary of our homes, at times, we have to turn off the loud-speaker. Talk is not always a condition of progress, but light is everywhere necessary to growth, whether the growing thing is a blade of grass, a baby chick, or a young idea, and we must regret anything that tends to shut out the light from the operations of business and industry. Of course, I realize there is little that is novel in what I am saying. Indeed, I have found that Dr. James Douglas-a name we love to honor in our Institute-as long ago as 1907, gave an address at the Toronto meeting that any of us would be proud to be author of twenty-one years after. Dr. Douglas at that time spoke on secrecy in the arts and the text then taken by this leader in metallurgical technique and in the constructive management of big business was "the dangerous temptation to adopt secretive methods by very large corporations." In both thought and language Dr. Douglas was direct and vigorous and he needs no internreter. He advocated the wide open door for ideas on two counts: advancement of technical knowledge and education of public opinion. A few sentences will serve not only to prove the vision of James Douglas, but also, I hope, tempt you to hunt up his address in the Institute's TRANSACTIONS, and thus get his whole thought first hand.

Jan 1, 1928

By Henry M. Howe

This paper may be regarded as a report of progress of an investigation into the influence of prior exposure to different high temperatures, under different conditions, on the properties of steel after it has been cooled completely. The following are the chief divisions: II.—Experiments on toughening manganese-steel by sudden cooling. III.—A study of the critical points of common or carbon-steel, chiefly by examining the spontaneous retardations which occur in heating and cooling it, and by examining the ductility of pieces of steel which have been cooled suddenly from different temperatures by quenching them in water or brine. IV.—A brief note on Osmond's theory. V.—A study of the critical points by examining the ductility of pieces of steel which have been cooled slowly from different temperatures at, above, and below them. VI.—A description of the furnace used, with notes on thermoelectric pyrometry. It remains to throw further light on the questions studied by ascertaining the condition of the carbon and the hardness proper, and by studying the microstructure and the fracture of the many pieces treated. I hope to present later the results of experiments in some of these directions. With few exceptions, the experiments have been performed in my private laboratory. I tender sincere thanks to my assistant, Mr. William Haskins, S.B., on whom most of the labor has fallen, for his zealous and intelligent co-operation; to the Sterling Steel Co. for their extra hard steel, Series 17; and to Mr. Joseph Hartshorne and the Pottstown Iron Co. for their soft basic steel. Series 8, 9,10, and 18 were supplied by Messrs. Spaulding, Jennings & Co., of the West Bergen Steel Works; to them also my thanks are due. The temperature of the pieces treated has been very carefully

Jan 1, 1894