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By Pratima Meshram Abhilash

In this review, availability of germanium in primary and secondary resources and its recovery from these resources are presented. With nearly 40% germanium consumed in fiber optics and scarcity of resources, the global consumption outplays the primary production. Germanium exists as a substituted element in zinc sulfide matrix of lead–zinc sulfides and lignites. Nearly 60% of the germanium supply is met by zinc refining residues, and about 20–30% of germanium is produced from coal and its by-products. Germanium recovery from various resources such as zinc plant residues, coal and coal plant waste, spent optical fibers, and copper flue dust has been examined. Bioleaching was exploited by few researchers to extract germanium from zinc sulfides, sulfide tailings, jarosite, coal fly ash, and flue dust. This review covers the various work carried out by different chemical separation processes, viz., chemical precipitation, solvent extraction (SX), ion exchange (IX), and membrane processes, as well as biological approaches.

Jan 16, 2022

By P. A. K. Wilkinson

This paper is concerned with the development of an in situ recovery of boric acid from a deep-seated colemanite deposit in California. The deposit contains 147 million tons of borate ore containing 6.4% boron oxide (B203). It is the largest undeveloped colemanite deposit in the United States and because of its unique occurrence and grade, in situ extraction appears to be the most economic viable process. The paper covers the geological, mineralogical, hydrological, well-field development, and extraction considerations leading to the initial pilot plant and subsequent demonstration plant phases of the project. Market potential aspects and preliminary economics of the project are also covered.

Jan 1, 1987

By C. N. Savage

An industrial minerals review involves an attempt to assemble field and statistical data which are obscure, elusive and incomplete. Often, when me statistical data are available, combining or lumping of commodity values conceals the value of specific items. Personal knowledge of the minerals known to occur in the area of concern, combined with whatever available published data may be compiled, together with careful use of several extrapolation methods, may yield an acceptable summary review of the industry. However, it is particularly hazardous to speculate on future trends and economic aspects because of the many unpredictable variables which may affect the industrial minerals business. Among these variables are the effects of diverse geological conditions, the impact of technological changes (including new uses for minerals not formerly considered industrial types), changing socio-economic factors (including growing environmental controversy), use of substitutes and even recycling of some of the industrial minerals (for example, building materials, lime, etc.). My main objectives are to reveal, as accurately as I can, the state of the in¬dustrial minerals situation, and the effects of possible future developments on this industry in Idaho. Where the words...industrial-tyke minerals, .are used in this discussion, reference is made to selected metallic and nonmetallic minerals and related materials, as well as rock (Table I). Industrial minerals known to be present in Idaho may be listed under general use categories as in Table 1. Some of these commodities are being marketed, have been marketed in the past, or occur in potentially marketable quantities. Mineral fuels are neither mentioned, nor are they considered important in Idaho. Based upon our present knowledge and lack of known, economically valuable occurrences of these commodities, they are considered insignificant (Idaho Bur. Mines and Geology, 1964). Information used for this study is from several sources. Most of the statisti¬cal information should be credited to the U.S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbooks,

Jan 1, 1971

By K. H. Boss

In modern iron pelletizing plants fuel consumption has been optimized to such an extent that only minor savings can be expected in the future. Inspite of this fact, different process parameters were studied with a mathematical model and firing tests. The influence on fuel consumption and productivity was established. Furthermore, the adoption of simplified firing patterns was investigated, in particular for coal firing. In view of high costs of oil and natural gas, only substitution of these fuels by coal can substantially reduce production costs. In existing plants partial replacement of oil and gas can be achieved by addition of coal to the iron ore feed and by firing the pellets with pulverized coal. Two systems have been developed for the Lurgi- Dravo travelling grate process which enables coal to completely replace oil or gas. This paper describes in the first part the potentials for fuel savings available in the Lurgi-Dravo process. In the second part, different techniques for the use of coal as fuel in iron or pelletizing plants and in particular the recently developed Lurgi Multistage Coal Injection and Combustion Process (LMC) are discussed. Combined with the LMC process, a wide variety of iron ores and coals - also with high ash contents - can be used in the Lurgi-Dravo travelling grate process.

Jan 1, 1983

By B. Fagerberg

Crushing and grinding practice in Sweden follows largely the international pattern. Certain special circumstances, however, have had an influence on the development. Most mines are worked underground in either quite small or in very large units. To utilize small sulphide ores, custom milling is rather common. Apart from the cement industry, the rock species treated are hard and abrasive. Another important factor is the increasingly strict requirements placed on the mechanical condition of different products, especially lump ores and coarse iron ore concentrates. A significant feature in the design and development of Swedish crushing and grinding practice has also been close cooperation between machinery manufacturers and the users. An account of these conditions and an outline of the crushing and grinding techniques employed in Sweden are presented in this paper with emphasis on the mining industry. For background purposes it may be mentioned that crude ore production in Sweden last year included 45 mill. tonsx) of iron ore, of which some 20 mill. tons from Kiruna alone, and 4 mill. tons of sulphide ore from 22 other mines, fig. 1. In addition 8 mill. tons of limestone were quarried for cement production and several million tons of stone and sand for roads, aerated concrete, etc.

Jan 1, 1968

By Orris C. Herfindahl

Every few years we are treated to a battle over trade policy when the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act comes up for consideration. In 1962 it is especially appropriate to consider the problem of mineral import -policy and the closely related problem of general import policy, for this year's struggle is different from those of the past in two ways. First, proposals have been made which are a substantial departure from past trade agreements legislation, and second, the formation and growth of the Europe Economic is Community may have an important bearing on the kind of legislation that is adopted. But this anticipates what is to come later. My task is to examine the problem of mineral import policy, although we shall find soon enough that general trade policy must be considered in order to get an indication of what is in store for minerals.

Jan 1, 1962

By R. H. Goodman

The development of techniques for separating minerals based on differences in their specific gravities is reviewed and their present applications in process technology outlined. Special emphasis is placed on the development, in Australia, of new models of the spiral concentrator. The mechanics of separation of spiral separators are stated, including the effects of operating parameters, Some of the traditional areas of spiral application are described, together with examples of new applications such as treatment of fine alluvials and tailings, separation of liberated minerals at coarse sizes and fine coal recovery.

Jan 1, 1984

By H. Shafick Hanna

The major problems are identified the high phosphorus content and the fine dissemination or encapsulation of mineral impurities, in, ,the iron bearing minerals, A process which combined extreme fine grinding techniques with magnetizing roasting or flotation separation methods, is suggested. By these methods concentrates assaying 60-61 percent Fe exceeding the widely accepted upper limit of 56 percent Fe set for these ores, were produced with 75-90 percent iron recovery. Moreover it was shown that the phosphorus content of these concentrates could be reduced from 0.25 to 0.03 percent phosphorus by acid leaching. A brief discussion on production costs based on current and future developments in iron ore processing is given.

Jan 1, 1980

By Fred L. Stanley, Ricky Q. Honaker, Michael J. Mankosa

Spiral concentration has gained a great deal of popularity as a cheap, effective method for recovering fine coal (8x100 mesh). Typically, 6-turn, wide-profile spirals are used in either a single pass, open- circuit configuration or in combination with a middlings retreat circuit. Recent work conducted at Carpco, however, has indicated that a split feed scenario and/or hydraulic classification in advance of spiral concentration offers significant advantages in both capacity and metallurgical performance. In addition, it has also been shown that the apparent density separation which naturally occurs in a hydraulic classifier provides significant up-grading in terms of pyrite and ash rejection. The results from this study will be presented in comparison with those obtained from open-circuit spiral testing.

Jan 1, 1995

By Valerie Kollonitsch

Functional mineral pigments are used in large quantities in paint, paper, plastics, rubber, textiles, agriculture, and several other industries. U.S. consumption in 1969 is estimated at over 5 million tons a year, valued at nearly $150 million, as shown in Table 1. Originally extender pigments were employed only to lower cost. They were thought of merely as adulterants to replace more expensive prime pigments and binders. However, over the years their role has become better understood, and today their main functions are: - Increasing strength, stability, and service life. - Improving surface properties. - Enhancing application and processing properties. - Extending prime pigments. - Controlling viscosity and package stability - Lowering overall costs of the finished product. The principal minerals used as functional pigments are kaolin, ground calcium carbonate, talc, and asbestos. Other minerals include barytes, attapulgite, diatomite, mica, ground silica, wollastonite, and nepheline syenite. Several synthetic products, including precipitated calcium carbonate; precipitated, gel, and fumed silica; alumina trihydrate; and barium sulfate, compete with mineral products. They are more expensive, but often have more closely controlled particle size or other properties because they can be tailor-made according to the requirements. This paper covers only natural products selling for $10 or more a ton, approximately the lower limit for pigment grades. Data refer only to consumption in pigment applications. For example, such applications as filter aids for diatomite are not included. Key properties of the major mineral pigments are given in Table 2. It is important to note that these properties are primarily physical rather than chemical. In general, these products are sold to performance specifications for what they can do rather than on chemical composition specifications on what they contain.

Jan 1, 1969

By N. P. Titkov

This paper presents the results of laboratory and pilot plant investigations for the development of efficient methods of beneficiating hematite ores from the Krivoi Rog, Kursk Magnetic Anomoly, Olenogorsk, and other localities. The tests included gravity, magnetic (in a high intensity field), flota¬tion, and magnetizing roasting methods. It was possible to develop efficient beneficiation methods depending on the mineral composition of the ore and degree of dissemination of ore and gangue minerals. The paper shows the relationship between the iron silicate and quartz content of the ore and the technologic indices of the various beneficiation methods. Some of the conclusions based on these investigations and the technical and economic computations related to the cost of one ton of pig iron produced from concentrates obtained by the various beneficiation methods are: 1. If the hematite ore is not disseminated uniformly, it is expedient to use a combined gravity and flotation process. Ore particles up to 50 am. in size are beneficiated by gravity (heavy suspension, jigging, and others) and yield a lump concentrate. The middlings from this process are recrushed and floated; 2. Finely disseminated hematite ores, containing small quantities (less than 5 percent) of iron silicates, are most effectively beneficiated by flotation. Anionic (sulphate soap, tall oil emulsion with various foam depressors) as well as cationic collectors may be used. Depending on the mineral and chemical composition of the ore, it is possible to obtain concentrates containing up to 65 percent iron with an extraction up to 94 percent; 3. Finely disseminated, mixed hematite-magnetite ores may be beneficiated by flotation or a magnetic separation-flotation process; 4. Finely disseminated hematite ores, containing large quantities of iron silicates and earthy hematite ores are most efficiently beneficiated by the magnetizing roasting method. This method will yield concentrates containing up to 68 percent iron with extractions up to 90 percent. Although beneficiation by the magnetizing roasting process is costly, it will nonetheless, when employed on this type of ore, yield the least expensive pig iron.

Jan 1, 1960

By W. N. Hamilton

British Columbia is geologically favourable for a rich variety of industrial mineral occurrences. Some have been produced for years, others overlooked until recently. Major production occurs for asbestos, gypsum, limestone, magnesite, silica and sulfur; lesser production for a dozen others. For several of the minerals, potential is much greater than existing production. New production opportunities exist also for diamonds, niobium and REE minerals, fluorspar, kyanite, nepheline syenite, talc, and several others. Alberta, though geologically less diverse, also has many industrial minerals. Limestone, salt and sulfur have the major production; clay and shale, silica, sodium sulfate and a few others lesser production. Opportunities exist for expanded production, and for new production in heavy (Ti -Zr) minerals, formation brines (Ca-Mg-I-Li), and gypsum.

Jan 1, 1987

By P. G. Tzeferis

Factory beet molasses media were used as cheap sources of sucrose for microbial leaching of Greek nickeliferrous laterites using strains of Penicillium and Aspergillus sp. Nickel recoveries of up to 62% and cobalt recoveries of up to 50% were obtained by leaching in a two-phase system in which bioacids were produced by fungal metabolism in molasses ferrocyanide pretreated media. The addition of potassium ferrocyanide to the molasses substrates prior to leaching was found to have a beneficial effect by increasing the level of citric acid bioproduction, thus improving the leaching efficiency of the fermentation liquid. The metals known to interfere with citric acid production (i.e., Fe, Cu, Ca and Mn) were those most efficiently precipitated. Considering the much lower commercial price of molasses in the industrial market compared to sucrose and glucose carbohydrate media, molasses could prove to be a promising alternative, despite the cost of the required pretreatment.

Jan 1, 1995

By S. Ubaldini

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a common problem in different areas with a past history of mining activities, which is characterized by low pH (2-4.5) and significant toxic metals concentration. The main aim of the present work was to perform a process feasibility analysis in order to remove heavy metals (Cd, Zn, Ni, Mn, Cu) from AMD (Acid Mine Drainage) in a relatively cheap and environmentally friendly way, by means of electrowinning and biosorption. A first characterization of an Italian AMD sample was performed evidencing a zinc concentration around 2 g/L, cadmium and nickel content of about 4 mg/L, manganese of 85 mg/L and iron 190 mg/L. Electrowinning tests lead to the following metal removal after three hours treatment: Zn 99%, Ni 99.9%, Cd 99.9%, Cu 99%, Mn 87%, Fe 96%. Moreover, an high grade of purity of the metal deposit has been achieved (Zn>95%), as observed by X-ray diffraction analysis. Considering that metals concentration in the effluent was still above legal limits (in particular for Zn, Mn and Fe), a further biosorption treatment was planned in order to produce an effluent fitting environmental limits. Experimental electrowinning tests and literature multimetal column biosorption data have been used in order to perform a preliminary techno-economic feasibility analysis of the process aimed at metal removal from AMD. A treatment cost of about 6.5 ?/m3 AMD has been estimated, for a plant capacity of 10 m3/h AMD inlet flow rate.

Jan 1, 2006

By Carl R. Peterson, John Herrick

INTRODUCTION The need for substantial advances in underground excavation technology has produced considerable research activity on a wide variety of concepts under a variety of Government funded programs. One goal of this "Rapid Excavation" effort has been the development of a means to apply the well-known virtues, both technical and economic, of the drill and blast method in a continuous process. The spiral blast concept, aimed at this specific goal, has been funded for initial studies (1) by the ARPA Rapid Excavation Program and, for the experimental work reported herein, by the Department of Transportation (2). The economy enjoyed by the drill and blast method stems from two factors: explosive energy is relatively cheap; and this energy is released so as to cause rock fragmentation largely through tensile failures. The relative ease and efficiency of tensile rock failures have long been recognized. The drill and blast process of course cannot be truly continuous since drilling and blasting (and other necessary functions) simply are separate, distinct operations. Although some surface explosive work has been done to avoid the need for drilled blast holes (3) it does appear that the high performance associated with explosive excavation requires placement of the explosive beneath the rock surface. This paper describes studies of blasting pattern which, in simplest terms, replaces the occasional heavy blast of conventional practice with frequent, much smaller blasts. The objective, of course, is to reduce the size of individual blasts

Jan 1, 1974

By Zsolt Csillag, Dragorad Ivankovic, Miomir Ceh, Anna Csordás-Tóth

Results of the common research work of ALUTERV-FKI and RI in field of ore dressing are presented here. Although monohydrate types of bauxites consist of finely dispersed minerals, however, in some cases certain contaminants (carbonates mainly), can be reduced by physical methods before Bayer process. Electronmicroscopy combined with computerized data processing is proven to determine the possibility of beneficiation and to control the different stages of ore dressing. Test results gained by Hungarian and Yougoslavian bauxite samples, contaminated by calcite, dolomite, siderite and pyrite, are discussed. Basic operations were: grinding (mostly dry) and classification, magnetic separation (mostly wet) and selective agglomeration. Only simple processes, having high efficiency and mostly dry ore dressing technique may meet the requirement of economical criteria. 1. [CONDITIONS OF ADAPTING THE BAUXITE DRESSING METHOD] Bauxite is a relatively cheap raw material, occurring in great bulks. Bauxite deposits may often lay far from the traditional ore processing plants, and in such cases the ore reaches the plants after long transportation. Some of these plants must face the difficulty that the resources of high quality ore are exhausted, they fall short of supply and, consequently, they must decide on whether to utilize the existing resources of poorer

Jan 1, 1984

By Fernando Pendás, Jorge Loredo, Alumudena Ordóñez

Water derived from mine-tailings typically contains high concentrations of H+, SO4, Fe and other metals, and it frequently suffers a decline in pH and the development of acidic mine drainage (AMD). A paper describing the results of a series of laboratory experiments with real AMD and a subsequent field trial with a in situ pilot system to assess a potential method for remediating tailings-derived water is presented here. After testing different organic substrates, residence times and flow conditions during two years to determine the most appropriate treatment for a polluted Spanish AMD, a pilot scale system combining SAPS, ALD, oxidation/sedimentation ponds and an anaerobic wetland was designed. Preliminary analyses of effluent samples indicate acidity and metal removal is occurring within the system, although sulphate removal is not complete. The results of this small-scale field trial suggest a potential cheap, long-term alternative for remediation of acid mine drainage.

Jan 1, 2000

Although mineral commodities used to play and still play a very crucial role in the development of civilization over the centuries, their extraction, transportation, transformation and use are at present sources of great concern in terms of sustainability. Some of the most discussed environmental problems are in fact closely related to the utilization of minerals as materials and fossil fuels. The paper analyses the origins of sustain-ability weakness of mineral supply through Environmental Economics models, which have interpreted the phenomena of pollution and non-renewable resource depletion as a market failure. Conventional market tools have proved to be unable to perform an optimal allocation of those resources that are priceless or have open access. An external intervention is needed in order to reduce the excessive exploitation of environmental and natural resources. Some of the solutions proposed by policymakers and subsequently implemented by governments are briefly considered and the achieved results are discussed. In several cases the public intervention, where the attempt was to restore the sustainability conditions, has failed. Restrictive environmental protection regulations have resulted in severe limitations to the mining activity, without, on the other hand, achieving the expected results in terms of sustainability. Some of these regulations instigate unfair international competition practices among those producers who do care about the environment, but who have high production costs, and those who supply cheap raw material but whose low costs hide heavy environmental impacts. Nowadays, most of the world?s supply of minerals is being produced in developing countries, with severe global environmental impacts. As effective tools for monitoring the problem, sustainable development indicators could be used by policymakers to duly associate the comprehensive environmental impacts for each mining product, depending on its origin and extraction history.

Jan 1, 2003

By David A. Summers, Clark R. Barker

INTRODUCTION The use of high pressure water as a means of excavating valuable mineral from the earth dates back many hundreds of years, but is most familiar through its use in sluicing the gold bearing deposits of California and Alaska. Interestingly, that practice, which dates back from at least 1852, is now nearly defunct with only one known surviving hydraulicking operation.(l) In that particular development water under a relatively low, natural pressure head is carried to a nozzle and from the nozzle it is thrown a distance of perhaps 20 ft to wash the gold bearing material down into a channel from whence it's carried over some mineral collector, and the water is then recirculated. Development of this practice in coal mining began in Russia in 1915, and Dr. Muchnik established the criteria for hydraulic mining during the 1930's. The first water jet mine was established underground in 1939 and has been followed by several larger mines to the present day where there are at least 11 large mines producing about 10 million tons of coal per year in the Soviet Union.(2) Water jet mining has expanded from Russia through Japan, Germany, Poland, Czekoslovakia, and mainland China. The nearest location to the United States is currently at the Kaiser Mine in Sparwood, British Columbia, where a three-man crew has mined up to 3,400 tons of coal in a 6-hr shift. There are many advantages to this particular operation. It is one of the safest mining operations for coal in Canada and has won safety awards because of this. The process is relatively cheap since the cost of the equipment is much lower than that which would be required conventionally using either longwall or shortwall mining, and transportation is achieved by fluming the coal to a central station using a gravity feed and then pumping to the surface, (3) For this

Jan 1, 1976

By C. S. Simons

The aphorism that provided the title of this paper is probably a couple of hundred years old, but it still expresses a fundamental truth in the metals industry. This truth will be illustrated through a brief review of the major developments in the extractive metallurgy of the oxidized ores of nickel - the "laterite" ores. While the details to be discussed are for the most part specific to nickel, a close parallel with other commodities - particularly in recent years - will be apparent even to those whose interest in nickel itself is slight. Thus it is hoped that this paper will be stimulating, at the least, to anyone who is concerned with the implementation of process improvement, "Invention" in the present context means any change from "conventional" process technology that shows a reasonable chance of reducing costs, increasing revenues, or both, in the production of a commodity. This can be anything from a simple rearrangement of flowsheet steps to a completely different basis for processing. And the result may reduce costs by more efficient use of energy or labor or reagents; may increase revenues by better recovery of the primary product or by introducing the recovery of previously ignored by-products; may insure sales volume (and thereby cash flow) through higher product purity or an improved product form. "Necessity" is the perceived need to attain at least one of these classes of results. This perception of necessity, however, varies widely from management to management and from project to project.

Jan 1, 1983