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REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES 1. U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining. Surface Coal Mining Reclamation: 10 Years of Progress: 1977-1987. Washington, D.C. August 3, 1987.48 pp. (For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 20402.) 2. The Rural Abandoned Mine Program (RAMP), authorized by Section 406 of SMCRA, provides for the control and prevention o f erosion and sediment damages from unreclaimed abandoned mine lands. 3. The Small Operator Assistance Program (SOAP), authorized by Section 401(b)(1) and 507(c) of SMCRA authorizes up to 10 percent of the fees collected for the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund to be used for technical assistance to help qualified small mine operators obtain techincal data needed for permit applications. Operators who produce fewer than 300,000 tons of coal per year are eligible for assistance. 4. OSM regulations 30 CFR 816.42 and 817.42 require water from areas distrubed by mining activities be in compliance with all applicable state and federal water-quality laws and effluent limitations for coal mining established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 5. Sourse: Abandoned Mine Lands Fee Collection System, Data from OSM-1 form. 6. Sourse: Abandoned Mine Lands Fee Collection System, Data from OSM-1 form. 7. Source: OSM Field Office Annual Reports. 8. Johnson, W. and G.C. Miller, Abandoned Coal-Mine Lands: nature, extent, and cost of reclamation. U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1979,29 pp. PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS Front cover, pp. i, 1, 2 bottom, 7 right, 10 bottom left, l 1 top, l l bottom right, 12 top, 13 bottom, 14 bottom right, 15,16 bottom, 17 top, 17 bottom right, 18 bottom, 19, 20 bottom, 21 top, 22, 23, 24 bottom, 25 bottom, 26 bottom left, 26 bottom right, 27, 28, 29 top, 30 bottom, 32 bottom right, 33 top, 34 top, 35 top left, 35 bottom left, 35 bottom right, 36 top, 37, top right, 37 bottom, 38 bottom, 39, 41, 42 top, 43 bottom, 44 bottom left, 44 bottom right, 45, 46, 47, and 53: Chuck Meyers, OSM. Page 2 top and center: Tony Fuhs. Page 3: John Sharkowicz, OSM. Page 6 left: North American Coal Corp. Pages 6 right, 7 left, l l bottom left, 13 top left, 13 top right, 17 bottom left, 21 bottom, 25 top left, 25 top right, 29 bottom, 30 center, 32 top, 32 bottom left, and 38 top: Bob Welch, OSM. Page 10 top left: Donald Stump, OSM. Pages 10 right, 14 top right, 14 center right, 18 top, and 44 top: Ron Hill, EPA. Page 12 bottom: Texas Utilities Co. Pages 16 top, 20 top, 24 top: Tennessee Valley Authority. Page 26 top right and 26 center left: Richard Dick, U.S. Bureau of Mines. Pages 30 top, 33 bottom left, 33 bottom right, 35 top right, 36 bottom, 37 top left, 40 top, 40 bottom, 42 bottom, 43 top left, and 43 top right: Jim Boyer, OSM. Page 31 top left, and 31 top right: Bruce Wage, Western Energy Co. Page 31 bottom: Rex Wilson, OSM. Page 34 bottom: West Virginia Division of Abandoned Mine Lands. Page 35 center: William Weist, Jr., OSM.

Jan 1, 1992

By S. A. Bortz

This report presents the results of an extensive laboratory testing program to determine the physical properties of shotcrete including the use of fast-set agents, controlled set cements, and both wet and dry shotcreting equipment. Shotcrete was placed under simulated field conditions using the dry and wet processes. Mechanical properties obtained for accelerated and nonaccelerated shotcretes include compressive, flexural, and shear strength, elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio, and shear and tensile properties of shotcrete bonded to coal, sandstone, and shale. Physical properties measured were unit weight and permeability to methane gas. The data show that rapid setting shotcrete has the potential for improved coal mine ground control. There is no clear evidence that either wet or dry process shotcrete is superior to the other; however, indications are that regulated set cement is preferred to cement containing fast-setting admixtures.

Jan 1, 1973

By Albert L. Toenges

The State Division of Geology Arkansas Resources and Development Commission, and the Arkansas-Oklahoma Coal, Operators Association requested assistance from the Bureau of Mines in a study of coal-mining methods and practices in .Arkansas coal mines with the objective of reducing production costs. On October 7, 1946, a joint meeting was held by representatives of the Arkansas Resources and Development Commission, approximately 30 coal-mine Operators of the Arkansas -Oklahoma Coal Operaters Association, and representatives of the Bureau of Mines. The many problems confronting the coal industry in Arkansas, including mechanical mining in thin beds, costs, labor, and working time were discussed. Following this Meeting, a joint letter from Harold B. Foxhall, State geologist, and -P. R. Stewart, commissioner, Arkansas-Oklahoma Coal Operators Association, was addressed to Dr. R. R. Sayers; former ,Director of the Bureau of Mines, requesting that mining conditions in Arkansas be studied.

Jan 1, 1949

By Chas. F. Jackson

This paper is published as a progress report for the first half of 1929 on the study of wining methods and costs in the Eastern and Central States. Data obtained from 25 mines using open-stope methods are correlated and summarized. Some of these mines have been described in considerable detail in reports already published as Information Circulars. In addition to the published reports on individual mines, considerable data have been obtained from other mines which were visited and studied during the course of the investigation. Many of these mines will later be described in detail in separate papers, and when the field has been covered in this manner it is planned to issue a bulletin on open-stops methods of mining which will amplify the subject matter of the present paper. Definition of ?Open-Stops?. - The term "open-stopes" as employed by the Bureau of Mines is applied to all naturally supported stopes; that is, stopes in which the excavated ore is not replaced by support of an artificial nature other than preps or stulls and in which the ore or (and) capping are not caved during the active life of the stopes.

Jan 1, 1931

By W. W. Adams

"The main purpose in the compilation of accident statistics is to reveal conditions that may result in injury to persons or property so that remedial measures may be applied. For practical reasons it is usually found necessary to restrict inquiry to conditions which actually have caused personal injury, and to omit those which nay, but have not yet, resulted in damage, Fortunately or unfortunately, there is a sufficient number of the former to indicate the existence of hazards so numerous as to require all of the attention which the industry can devote to the subject.Two years ago, the Bureau of 'mines, in cooperation with the National Safety Council, undertook an intensive campaign to obtain more complete and satisfactory information regarding mine accidents than had theretofore been available. Since 1911 the bureau had been receiving annual summaries from all companies operating metal mines, showing, in a general way, the number and causes of accidents that occurred during the preceding year and the number of men employed at the mines. Monthly summaries of fatal accidents at coal mines were received from the state inspectors, showing the number of deaths attributed to each of 22 main causes of accidents, Information for individual coal mines was not furnished.While this information, nation-wide in scope, is indispensable because it epitomizes the progress or retrogression in the industry as a whole, and serves as a background of specialized studies, yet certain classes of acci¬dents, for example, those that are more or less peculiar to specific districts or mines, require an analysis in greater detail than is possible on the sole basis afforded by the annual summaries.The need for more specific information was realized some years ago in the State of Pennsylvania in connection with the administration of the workmen's compensation law, The mining industry is well acquainted with the val¬uable studies of accidents, particularly nonfatal accidents, in the mines of that State being conducted by Mr. Rush N. Hosier."

Sep 1, 1924

By Burton J. Thamer

Radon emanation coefficients of 0.02 to 0.55 were measured at moisture contents ranging from dry to saturation in eighteen different ores. The emanation coefficients rose from a minimum when dry to a plateau usually starting at 5-20 percent of saturation. A model, using measured pore-size distributions, suggested that the radium mineralization may be confined to annular layers about 0.02 micrometers thick around pores. Radon's diffusion coefficient was determined as a function of moisture. The techniques involved comparing a disc's exhalation as a function of time whether or not the disc had a distributed source. The model was free of approximations and included the effects of porosity and adsorption. An increase of diffusion coefficient with moisture for one or two ores was explained in terms of a model's equation for the diffusion coefficient in terms of both volume and surface diffusion. Radon's adsorption coefficient was determined on a uranium ore.

Jan 1, 1981

By Frank J. Wiebelt

As a result of the examination of many copper-zinc properties in the West Belt area of California, nine were chosen for exploration projects by the Bureau of Mines. This was part of the Bureau's wartime mineral-development program aimed at maintaining production of essential metals and increasing ore reserves. The properties explored were the El Dorado, El Dorado County; Copper Hill, Newton, and Gray House, Amador County; Constellation, North Keystone, and Collier, Calaveras County; and American Eagle and Akoz, Mariposa County. In addition to surface sampling and mapping, 41 holes, aggregating 18,134 linear feet, were diamond-drilled. Detailed results of the work done on all properties except the El Dorado and Akoz are given in this report. The El Dorado and Akoz were discussed in Reports of Investigations 3896 and 4144, respectively. Figure 1 is an index map showing the location of the mines covered in this publication.

Jan 1, 1951

By Maurice J. Peterson

THE VISUAL-ARC spectroscopic method of rapid qualitative analysis of complex inorganic compounds has been popularized in the past few years and is being employed by an increasing number of laboratories. The mineralogy and chemistry departments of several universities recently have added visual spectroscopy to their laboratory curricula. This revival of interest in a somewhat dormant analytical method has been stimulated through the publication of three papers 4 by members of the College Park staff of the Bureau of Mines. These virtually are the only recent sources of information on visual-arc spectroscopic analysis. They include data on the spectroscopic assembly, the analytical procedure, and the practical application of the method to determinative mineralogy and related fields. Requests for reprints of these papers continue to be received; at present only a limited number of copies are available for distribution. In order that these requests may be adequately answered, material from the three papers has been combined and, with some additional data, is presented in this bulletin. Numerous specific inquiries have been received regarding types of equipment available, problems in instrumentation, and information on the approximate sensitivity limits of the elements that can be detected by this method. Some of this material was not included in the original papers. Accordingly, the table of wavelengths has been revised to include the approximate visual-arc spectroscopic sensitivities, and a section on commercially available equipment has been added.

Jan 1, 1953

By D. Harrington

Metal-mine fires in the United States are not of frequent occurrence and relatively for of those that do occur result in loss of life, although many cause heavy property loss or are costly to extinguish. Over a span of years, however, more lives are lost in metal Trines from fires than from any other of the untoward occurrences which afflict metal mining, such as electrical storms, floods, cave-ins, magazine explosions, or strikes. In perhaps more than 90 per cent of the fires. in metal mines' there is no loss of life; hence, the general public, even the general mining public, seldom hears of these fires, though the property loss frequently reaches hundreds of thousands of dollars; on the other end, in some instances the property damage from an underground metal-mine, fire has been negligible and the loss of life comparatively high. In any comprehensive study of metal-mine fires, ventilation is certain to be found a vital factor. The influence of ventilation on fires and the influence of fires on ventilation are of vital importance. In metal-mine fires very few persons meet death from actual contact Pith heat or flame; nearly all fatalities are duo to asphyxiation or suffocation. A well-planned, well-installed, and well-operated mechanical ventilation system is unquestionably one of the best available present-day protections from loss of life and property in case of fire in a metal mine; that this is true is attested by the usual helplessness of mining officials in trying to handled underground fires in a mine that has not had the foresight to install mechanical equipment to control underground air flow. On the other hand, the establishment of high-velocity air currents without sufficient day by day attention to such details as the method of coursing, or controlling, or confining them most certainly tends to increase dangers from fires rather than to aid in the avoidance or elimination of these dangers; the truth of this latter statement is shown by the fact that the greatest, loss of life in metal-mine fires during the past 20 years has been in relatively well-ventilated workings, and in every case the life loss has been due to some more or less trivial or easily remedied defect in the Ventilating system - usually a defect that has had some reference to doors used or supposed to be used to deflect or control air currents.

Jan 1, 1933

By C. E. Wyndham

The occurrences of manganese In Alabama were reported to be widely scattered over the northeastern section of the State, and these were examined before a development project was started.2/ The most promising and available showings were chosen for further investigation, which include 1 deposit in Goshen Valley, 6 in the Rock Run area, and 2 in the northern section of Calhoun County. The work was performed by the Bureau of Mines from July 29, 1949, to February 17, 1950. The work consisted of power auger drilling 69 holes 3-1/2 inches in diameter and totaling 2,548.4 linear feet. The accuracy of samples from auger drill holes in this type of deposit was determined by sinking two shafts a total depth of 68.17 feet, from which channel samples were cut. Sixteen rotary core holes totaling 1,048.7 linear feet were drilled with a 3-inch, double-tube core barrel. Twenty-two diamond core holes were drilled with a 2-1/8-inch, double-tube core barrel and NX diamond bit. In addition to the above drilling 220.8 cubic yards of soil and rock was excavated by hand from 403.9 linear feet of trenches and 69.7 feet of test pita. A total of 206 samples were taken and analyzed for manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, and insoluble.

Jan 1, 1953

By F. K. Shelton, J. C. Stah, Ruth E. Churchward

A study of the hydrometallurgy and electrowinning of cobalt from various domestic ores has been in progress at the Boulder City, Nevada, Experiment Station since February 1940. Previous reports covering certain phases of this investigation have been published. This report covers the research and pilot-plant work on the production of cobalt metal from cobalt-copper ores from the initial experimental work on crude ore through continuous operation. The ore types were from the Blackbird District, Lemhi County, Idaho. The initial tests were made with concentrated ore which was received by air mail and these experiments were expanded both in size and scope. After the laboratory was continued, improved, and extended tests were reported. Sufficiently advanced, a continuously operated plant producing 250 pounds of electrolytic cobalt per day was operated from June 15 through July 15, 1944.

Jan 1, 1948

By A. M. Evans

"INTRODUCTION Exploration of the Iron Mountain and Bader iron-ore deposits in Llano County and the Gamble deposit in Mason County, Texas, was begun by the Bureau of Mines in January and completed in May 1944. The deposits had been examined by A. B. Needham, district engineer of the Bureau, in November 1942. Detailed geophysical studies by the gravity method as well as with a dip needle were made by the Bureau of Economic Geology 3/ of the University of Texas and the Federal Geological Survey. 4/ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIn the program of exploration of mineral deposits, the Bureau of Mines has as its primary objective the more effective utilization of our mineral resources to the end that they make the greatest possible contribution to national security and economy., It is the policy of the Bureau to publish the facts developed by each exploration project as soon as practicable after its completion. The Mining Branch, Lowell B. Moon, chief, conducts preliminary examinations, performs the actual exploratory work, and prepares the final report. The Metallurgical Branch, R. G. Knickerbocker, chief, analyzes samples and performs beneficiation tests."

Apr 1, 1947

By S. H. Lorain

Shortly after the Strategic Minerals Act of 1939 we passed by Congress, the Bureau of Mines was authorized to begin a program of investigation of domestic sources of strategic minerals. Since World War I, the Philipsburg district had been virtually the only one in the United States that was producing manganese on a commercial scale. Consequently, the district was among the first to he investigated. During the summer of 1939, the Geological Survey mapped the geology and ore deposits of the district. In late July 1939 the writer examined the district for the Bureau of Mines. On the basis of this examination and of the work performed by the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines diamond-drilled at several properties in the district during the summer of 1940. This report reviews the mining history and geology of the district, and presents the factual data obtained by diamond drilling.

Jan 1, 1950

By S. Kodama

Starting on a small scale, the equipment for processing synthesis gas to form liquid hydrocarbons was expanded to handle 100 m) 3/hr. This reactor was successfully designed and constructed, and a basis for future design methods was established. Because, however, this work was carried out on an empirical basis, it is felt that a more thorough theoretical study should be made in an effort to increase the efficiency of the process, particularly in the development of a simpler converter.

Jan 1, 1951

By J. B. Zadra

The use of activated carbon for extracting gold and silver from pregnant cyanide solution and pulp has been investigated many times. The primary advantage of this use of activated carbon is that .the dissolved values can be recovered from slimy ore pulps or from slime portions of ore without settling and thickening or filtering. The loaded carbon is removed from the barren pulp, and the pulp can then be discarded. Activated carbon has been used recently in treating gold ores containing very little soluble silver. When the carbon was loaded with a suitable amount of gold, the silver load was negligible. The remaining problems concerned the removal of the gold from the carbon, the recovery of the gold as bullion, and the reuse of the unloaded carbon. As described in a recent report, a method that solved these problems was developed. The gold-laden carbon was leached with caustic sodium sulfide solution and the gold simultaneously recovered by electrolysis. Both the carbon and the spent solution can be reused. That process was applicable to gold-laden carbon only. It was not applicable to carbon carrying silver, because sodium sulfide does not leach silver from carbon but "fixes" it. It has been necessary, therefore, to develop a modified process for the removal or desorption of both gold and silver from loaded carbon. This modi¬fied process permits the use of activated carbon for extracting both gold and silver from gold ores carrying enough silver to have economical interest or in which silver may be the predominating value.

Jan 1, 1952

By S. R. B. Cooke, F. D. DeVaney

"INTRODUCTION The potash mineral receiving the most attention in the newly discovered. New Mexico-Texas potash district near Carlsbad, N. M. is sylvite (potassium chloride). Sylvite contains more potassium than any other mineral. Merchantable high-grade deposits have been found, and those of lower grade may be enriched to a high degree of purity by refining methods. Deposits containing sylvite were the first to be developed and axe the only ones being mined.However, many other minerals that contain potash occur in the salt beds of the Carlsbad District. Of these the more important are polyhalite, carnallite, langbeinite, leonite, and kainite. The nature of the deposits and their mineralogy have been described in detail by members of the United States Geological Survey. 4/Langbeinite, although not so abundant in these deposits as carnallite and has particular interest because the potash is in the form of the sulphate and as such commands a premium in terms of K20 unit. This is explained by Fox and Turrentine 5/, who state:"

Feb 1, 1936

By James A. Wasson

The Mitchell and Berea sands were cored and logged in Fred Link well K-l, Lower Newport field, Washington County, Ohio. Core and reservoir fluid analyses and available field data were studied to determine if these sands could be successfully waterflooded. The results of the study indicate that there is insufficient oil in place to form an oilbank in either the western Mitchell pool or the Berea sand, and that no commercial recovery of oil by waterflooding can be obtained in these reservoirs.

Jan 1, 1967

By D. D. Harbuck

To decrease reliance on foreign sources for the strategic and critical metals gallium and germanium, the U.S. Bureau of Mines identified and developed processing technology for two domestic sources of these metals: a Tennessee zinc residue and a Utah ore. Sulfuric acid (H2S04) solutions were used to solubilize gallium and germanium in both sources. Statistically designed experiments showed that the most important parameter for high metal extraction from zinc residue was the H2S04 concentration. At a concentration of 2.9M H2S04, 95 pct of the gallium was extracted, and at a concentration of 0.6M H2S04, 73 pct of the germanium was extracted. Controlled H2S04 concentration was also the key for high metal extractions (97 pct Ga, 87 pct Ge) from the Utah ore. Such control was achieved using a two-stage countercurrent leach circuit. Testing showed that the insoluble germanium in both the residue and ore was tied up with silica. Several methods for overcoming this problem are given. To recover gallium and germanium from the leach solutions, the solvent extractants octylphenyl acid phosphate (OPAP) (for gallium) and LIX 63-OPAP (for germanium) were identified. These extractants were tested in separate, continuous, solvent-extraction circuits yielding a gallium recovery of 94 pct and a germanium recovery of more than 90 pct.

Jan 1, 2010

Occupational illnesses are more difficult to identify than on-the-job injuries. Many illnesses related to occupational exposures may not be diagnosed until years after exposure; by that time, exposed workers may have changed jobs or left the workforce. Other approaches to identifying occupationally related illness are analysis of death certificate data (see chapter 2) and medical examination studies of workers known to have high exposures to hazardous agents. Figures 5-1, 5-3, 5-4, 5-6, 5-8, and 5-10 show, for each commodity, the percent of illness conditions reported to MSHA by nature of condition. Heart attacks that occurred on the job are reported without regard to work-relatedness. Figures 5-2, 5-5, 5-7, 5-9, and 5-11 show rates by year during 1986-1995 for selected conditions. Since there are many limitations on the accuracy of illness reporting, the frequencies and rates shown here should not be considered directly comparable across commodities. Figure 5-12 shows estimates for hearing loss by age among coal miners compared to a nonoccupationally noise-exposed population. These data come from a study by Franks [1996] of a group of audiograms obtained on coal miners by a commercial company. Using the NIOSH definition of hearing impairment, i.e., an average hearing threshold level for both ears that exceeds 25 dB at frequencies of 1,000, 2,000, 3,000 and 4,000 Hz, the figure shows that by age 30, more than 10% of miners suffer hearing impairment; by age 50, 90% of miners have hearing impairment. In contrast, only 10% of the nonoccupationally noise-exposed population suffer hearing impairment at age 51, and 50% of the nonoccupationally exposed population have hearing impairment at age 69. Figure 5-13 shows a similar analysis of commercial audiograms on male metal/nonmetal miners [Franks 1997]. At age 20, approximately 2% have hearing impairment using the NIOSH definition of hearing impairment described above. This increases to 7% at age 30, 25% at age 40, and 49% at age 50. In contrast, only 9% of the nonoccupationally noise-exposed comparison population have hearing impairment at age 50. Franks' analysis showed a different pattern for female metal/nonmetal miners; they developed hearing loss at the same rate as would be expected for a non-noise-exposed female population.

Jan 5, 2000

By Arne Landsberg

A study of the chlorination kinetics of germanium, silicon, iron, tungsten, molybdenum, columbium, and tantalum has been made to determine the effects of temperature, chlorine concentration, geometric surface area and gamma radiation. The reaction products were volatile at the temperatures used this making it possible to follow the reaction rates by weight loss of the solid. Chlorination rates of germanium, silicon, and iron were found to be directly proportional to chlorine concentration while the rates for tungsten, molybdenum, columbium, and tantalum were proportional to the 0.5 to 0.6 power of chlorine concentration. A good correlation of reaction rate and geometric surface areas was not obtained because the true surface area of the samples could not be measured. Intense gamma radiation had no effect on reaction rates. The Arrhenius activation energies determined over the temperatures used are as follows: Germanium, 27 kcal/mole (233°-241° C); silicon 33 kcaL/mole (375°-517° C); iron, cold rolled, 20 kcal/mGle (259°-325° C) annealed, 21 kcal/mole (293°-337° C); tungsten, 43 kcal/mole (617-776° C); molybdenum, 37 kcal/mole (445°-4910 C); columbium) 34 kcal/mole (229°?255° C); and tantalum, 29 kcal/mole (370°-449° C).

Jan 1, 1965