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By J. Murray Riddell, Grover J. Holt, Arthur E. Anderson

Out of the depths of each business cycle we emerge with a stimulus for greater efficiency and a realization of progress in industrial technique. The recent years have not been an exception to this rule, and in retrospect we sense that significant advances have been made in mining practices on the Mesabi Range, with emphasis on speed of production and economy of operation. A survey of such changes does not reveal anything that is fundamentally or basically new, but it is apparent that ideas and machines that have found wide application in industry elsewhere, with necessary modifications, are being put to productive use in mining iron ore. Innovations in transporting and conveying ore from the open pits stand out with greatest prominence, so that, in the main, it will be with these features that this paper will treat, in the review of progress made to this date. The late years have witnessed the development of small deposits for open-pit operation, the cleaning up of pits nearing exhaustion, and in two large operations the approach to the limit for haulage by steam locomotives, owing to grades, making it necessary to recover the ore in slopes, track benches and below the power-shovel limit by a milling and scram operation. For several years small standard-type dump trucks have been used in clean-up or scram operations within the pits, but during the season of 1936 the first effort was made to use heavy truck haulage in the transportation of stripping and iron ore. The new units in use today vary from 15 to 20 tons in capacity, and are equipped with powerful gasoline or Diesel engines and supplemented by trailers or wagons on rubber or crawler treads. The Diesel engine finds favor with most operators because of fuel economy. These units develop upward of 125 hp. in the 15-ton trucks. The speed of these trucks varies from 2 miles per hour in Pow gear to 35 in high gear. The transmission affords 12 speeds forward and 3 speeds in reverse.

Jan 1, 1940

By J. Murray Riddell, Arthur E. Anderson, Grover J. Holt

Out of the depths of each business cycle we emerge with a stimulus for greater efficiency and a realization of progress in industrial technique. The recent years have not been an exception to this rule, and in retrospect we sense that significant advances have been made in mining practices on the Mesabi Range, with emphasis on speed of production and economy of operation. A survey of such changes does not reveal anything that is fundamentally or basically new, but it is apparent that ideas and machines that have found wide application in industry elsewhere, with necessary modifications, are being put to productive use in mining iron ore. Innovations in transporting and conveying ore from the open pits stand out with greatest prominence, so that, in the main, it will be with these features that this paper will treat, in the review of progress made to this date. The late years have witnessed the development of small deposits for open-pit operation, the cleaning up of pits nearing exhaustion, and in two large operations the approach to the limit for haulage by steam locomotives, owing to grades, making it necessary to recover the ore in slopes, track benches and below the power-shovel limit by a milling and scram operation. For several years small standard-type dump trucks have been used in clean-up or scram operations within the pits, but during the season of 1936 the first effort was made to use heavy truck haulage in the transportation of stripping and iron ore. The new units in use today vary from 15 to 20 tons in capacity, and are equipped with powerful gasoline or Diesel engines and supplemented by trailers or wagons on rubber or crawler treads. The Diesel engine finds favor with most operators because of fuel economy. These units develop upward of 125 hp. in the 15-ton trucks. The speed of these trucks varies from 2 miles per hour in Pow gear to 35 in high gear. The transmission affords 12 speeds forward and 3 speeds in reverse.

Jan 1, 1940

By K. Tangri, M. Chaturvedi

The addition of 0.5 wt pct Cu to Zr-2.5 Cb alloy increases the as -quenched hardness of the hexagonal martensitic a' phase, produced by water-quenching bccß-Zr phase, by about 35 pct. This strengthening has been attributed to the solid -solution hardening of the matrix. On aging ternary martensite, a' phase reverts to equilibrium a and Zr2Cu and ß-Cb precipitate out, mainly at the twin and grain boundaries, causing a secondary hardening of the matrix. COLD-worked Zircaloy-2 pressure tubes have been in use in power reactors for a considerable period of time. The search for a better material led to the development of Zr-2.5 wt pct Cb alloy which in the quench-aged condition develops 50 pct more strength than that of cold-worked Zircaloy-2, however, its corrosion resistance in water and steam in the temperature range of 316" to 400°C, in absence of neutron flux, is inferior to that of zircaloy-2.' Work carried out by Ells et al.1 and Dalgaard2 has shown that the corrosion properties of Zr-2.5 wt pct Cb alloy can be considerably improved by the ternary addition of 0.5 wt pct Cu. This paper is concerned with the effect of 0.5 wt pct Cu on the formation of martensitic a and its aging characteristics in a Zr-2.5 wt pct Cb alloy. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Zr-2.5 Cb-0.5 Cu (referred to as the ternary alloy) and Zr-2.5 Cb (referred to as the binary alloy) alloys, supplied by the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories of the AECL were used. The detailed chemical analysis is given in Table I. Cold rolling and swagging with frequent intermediate anneal of 1000°C were used for the initial fabrication of the alloys. All the heat treatments were carried out after the specimens were wrapped in zirconium foils and encapsulated in silica tubes under a vacuum of 5 x 10-6 mm of Hg. For optical metallography and hardness measurements specimens were mechanically and then chemically polished in a 45 pct HNOj, 45 pct HzO, and 10 pct HF solution. Hardness was measured on a Vickers hardness tester using a 10-kg load. For each specimen at least fifteen indentations were made in order to obtain a representative value. The phase identification and structural analysis were carried out using X-rays and electron diffraction techniques. Wires of 1.5 mm diam reduced to 0.12 mm diam by chemical etching were used for making Debye-Scherrer powder patterns using Cu Ka radiation in a 114.6 mm diam camera. Carbon extraction replicas were prepared by etching the specimens, after depositing a layer of carbon on the metallographic specimen, in one part HF and thirty parts ethyl alcohol. Thin films were prepared by electropolishing heat-treated 3/4 by 1/2 by 0.005 in. thick strips using a modified Bollman-Window technique. The 10 pct perchloric acid-90 pct methyl alcohol bath was kept at -50°C and polishing was done at 5 to 10 V. The thinned specimens were washed in ethyl alcohol at -30º to -40°C and dried between filter papers. Replicas and thin films were examined in a Phillips 300 G electron microscope. For resistivity measurements thin strip specimens 0.02 by 0.3 by 10.0 cm long were used. The potential leads were spot welded to the specimens in order to maintain a fixed length for the initial and the final resistivity measurements. The resistivity was measured by a Kelvin bridge in a temperature controlled room. The temperature was maintained at 72º ±1°F and the accuracy of the resistivity measurements was 0.03 µa-cm. RESULTS As-Quenched Structures. In order to produce a homogeneous matrix to study the precipitation reaction the solution-treatments of both the alloys were carried out in the -field region. From the Zr-Cb phase diagram due to Lundin and cox3 ß/a + ß phase boundary for Zr-2.5 wt pct Cb alloy is 820°C. Ells et al.1 have reported this boundary for Zr-2.5 Cb alloy containing 1100 ppm 0 to be at 920°C. Also, the addition of 0.5 wt pct Cu reduces this temperature by 50°C. Therefore, the solution-treatments were carried out at 1000°C to ensure that the alloys were in ß-phase region. The soaking time was 1 hr and the specimens were water-quenched. The as-quenched hardness of the binary alloy was 245 Vpn whereas, that of the ternary alloy was 330 Vpn. The X-ray diffraction studies indicated that the as-quenched structure of both the alloys consists of martensitic hexagonal phase a', with a c/a ratio of 1.591, and some retained ß-Zr. The presence of a' phase was further confirmed by thin film electron microscopy. Electron micrographs of typical ß-quenched structures of the ternary and the binary alloys are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. Fig. 3 shows the diffraction pattern from an area similar to that shown in Fig. 1. Although, the as-quenched hardness of the ternary alloy is about 35 pct greater than that of the binary alloy, the structure of both the alloys seems to be the same. The matrix of both alloys is heavily twinned and shows very few dislocations. Furthermore, there is no evidence of any precipitation taking place in either of the two specimens during quenching from the solution-treatment temperature. Aging Behavior of Martensitic a'. The aging kinetics of the ternary alloy were followed by resistivity and hardness measurements. The as-quenched values

Jan 1, 1970

By Alexander L. Field

IN a previous paper,' the experimental methods used and some of the results obtained in an extensive investigation of steels containing zirconium were described. The present paper considers in greater detail one of the most interesting of these effects, namely, the elimination of " red shortness" and the occurrence in steel of a compound of zirconium and sulfur. A consideration of the actual percentages of zirconium, manganese, and sulfur in numerous steels in the light of behavior during rolling has led to new conclusions of the most practical import regarding the reciprocal relationships of these elements. The microscopic examination of high-sulfur steels containing zirconium has also been productive of interesting results. Before discussing the experimental data in question, it may be stated, briefly, that the rettetion between zirconium and sulfur in molten steel may be represented by the simple equation, Zr + 25 = ZrS², and that the zirconium sulfide thus formed occurs in the finished steel in the form of gray-colored inclusions, closely resembling manganese sulfide and, like the latter, exhibiting plasticity at rolling temperatures. Molten steel containing zirconium retains such a negligibly small amount of oxygen in solution that the foregoing reaction goes to completion. Hot-rolling Properties of High-sulfur Steels with and without Zirconium The chemical composition of twenty-eight steel ingots embracing eleven heats made in a basic-lined electric furnace is shown in Table 1. The practice followed in the manufacture of these high-sulfur steels was described in the previous paper. Table 1 also gives the behavior of the

Jan 1, 1924

By PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS

THE opening session of the Institute was held at Hazle Hall, Tuesday evening, October 27th, with a large attendance of members. President Raymond called the Institute to order, and after a few introductory remarks, introduced Mr. I. Lowthian Bell, President of the Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, and Honorary Member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Mr. Bell was received with great applause, and made his acknowledgments in a brief speech, of which the following is the substance: He desired to thank the Institute personally for the honor conferred upon him in his election to membership, and also for the invitation extended last year to the body of which he was President. The difficulty felt by many members of the Iron and Steel Institute, of leaving for a long journey the works of which they had charge, aggravated by special industrial troubles at the time of the invitation, had obliged them to conclude that it could not then be accepted in a fitting manner. The iron manufacture of this country is a subject of great interest to Englishmen, who look with pride upon the achievements on this side the water of the descendants of a common ancestry. His own reception in this country had far surpassed in cordiality even the well-grounded anticipations he had formed from the assurances of the President and other friends. Notwithstanding the flattering manner in which his friend, in introducing him to the Institute, had spoken of his contributions to the science of iron metallurgy, he could not take to himself alone the significance of this welcome. He knew it was a recognition of the services rendered by the body which he had the honor to represent; and he was glad to see present a member of that body, Mr. Thomas Whitwell, who had fortunately been able to make the journey at this time, and whom he had had the pleasure of meeting on the shores of Lake Champlain. He had been requested to say something of his impressions of the American iron industry. It was not easy to digest so soon the vast

Jan 1, 1875

By R. B. G. Yeo

The effects of alloy additions on the M, and A, temperatures of an Fe-22.5 pct Ni alloy have been determined. Increasing amounts of titanium, colum-bium, vanadium, and silicon raise and then lower M,while raising A, cmtinuously. Cobalt raises both M, and A,. Aluminum has little effect on Ms but raises A,. Chromium md nickel lower M, and A,. It is proposed that elements raise M, in accordance with their effect on the Ae3 temperature of iron until the lattice becomes stiffened against the shear transformation so that M, is then lowered. An anomaly, first pointed out by Zener,1 arises in steels when the addition of elements, such as molybdenum and tungsten, which raise the Ae3 temperature, also lower the M, temperature.2'3 During the development of a series of martensitic precipitation-hardening (maraging) steels, the effect of several elements on the transformation of austenite to martensite was studied. The results show that under suitable conditions several elements which raise Ae3 also raise the M, and A, temperatures. PREPARATION OF MATERIALS STUDIED A series of alloys was made in which cobalt, titanium, columbium, vanadium, silicon, aluminum, molybdenum, chromium, and nickel were added to an iron base containing 22.5 pct Ni. The compositions of the alloys prepared are given in Table I. The residual manganese contents of the heats were in the range of 0.030 to 0.35 pct, silicon 0.05 to 0.1 pct, carbon 0.0008 to 0.009 pct, and nitrogen from 0 to 0.004 uct. The allois were made as 50-lb induction heats starting with electro-iron and electro-nickel, melted in air to oxidize impurities. Additions of silico-manganese and ferro-silicon were made after which the power was turned off to allow the products of deoxidation to rise and be skimmed from the surface of the melt. The furnace chamber was pumped down to a pressure of 5 p and the charge was heated to 2900°F for the addition of other alloying elements. The heats were poured into five 10-lb ingots, making successive alloy additions to each. The ingots were soaked for 2 hr at 2300°F and hot-worked to 3/4-in.-diam bars. This stock was heated to 1500°F for 1

Jan 1, 1963

By J. W. Gabelman

A study of spatial relations between uranium and other metal deposits and hydro thermally altered rocks in western Colorado demonstrated districtwide and regional zoning. The pattern was later found repeated elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere Cordillera. District mineralization centers are pipelike bodies of pervasively altered rock from which intensity-temperature-pressure gradients decreased outwardly. Uranium occurs in several zonal environments but usually is economic only in outermost zones. The general similarity of zones throughout the tectoni-cally and metallogenically uniform Cordillera may reflect a consistent hydrothermal process involving zoning. By determining positions of zones it should be possible to select for examination the most favorable small portions of districts or provinces. Mineralogical zoning has been discussed by Lindgren,l3 Graton,lo Emmons,' Blanchard,' Park and many others. It is commonly found to some extent in most mineralized areas. The existence of nonmetallic alteration envelopes around lode metal deposits and their relation to metallization were first emphasized by Lovering,l4 Burbank, Sales and Meyer," Sales,2o McKinstry,I7 Lovering and others15 and Schmitt. Also, large areas of nonmetallic alteration containing porphyry-type replacement metal disseminations have long been recognized and are described by Schwartz,25-28 Kerr and others" and Gilully. In some districts, e. g., Bingham Canyon, Utah, and Santa Rita, N.M., base metal lode deposits and their alteration envelopes are zoned around large altered areas which contain porphyry copper replacement disseminations; however, the spatial and genetic relations between lodes and replacement disseminations and their associated alterations do not seem to have received sufficient attention. Bodies of altered rock containing porphyry-type replacement disseminations are many times larger than the alteration envelopes containing lode deposits. The two types are rarely superimposed. They occur adjacent to or independent of one another, but they are believed to be related through the mechanism of zoning as suggested by Gabelman and Boyer. 5'6 Most of the significant lode metal deposits are distributed around central pipelike bodies of strong, pervasive, nonmetallic alteration which may or may

Jan 1, 1962

G. A. Moore—The tin-fusion method has been a very favorable possibility for many years. The authors apparently have settled the question that delayed the method for a long time by showing that no hydrogen is absorbed in the tin. This, of course, is very important. I want to make a few remarks concerning the absolute accuracy of analysis, which must be the final basis for deciding among the various methods. From the figures in the paper, there seems to be some re-maining slight discrepancy on the actual amount of hydrogen present in various samples which may be presumed essentially identical. (This is of the order of the precision of individual analyses but appears in averaged results.) From the analyst's viewpoint, the tally of hydrogen content can be regarded as occurring in three portions. First is a large portion which comes off easily and automatically during sample storage and later on heating in the apparatus. This is fairly easily analyzed. Second is an item which may be either positive or negative in the tally sheet. In warm or hot evolution, this is a portion which, in practice, can never be re-

Jan 1, 1951

By Charles Himrod

In presenting this paper it is not intended to enter into any discussion of the theory of the blast-furnace, but simply to give the results of a number of determinations of CO and CO 2 in furnace gases, and some conclusions arrived at, and the result of an experiment made in hopes of increasing the production of CO 2. In the first table, on page 198, is given the averages of a number of analyses of gases of different furnaces, and in the second, of two stacks of different sizes under varying circumstances. The conclusions arrived at as to what influences the production of CO2 are as follows: lst,. Kind of fuel. Bituminous coal not permitting the formation of as much CO, as coke. 2d. Kind of ores. Rolling-mill cinder being much less favorable to formation of CO2 than hematite ores, magnetites probably less than hematites, but more than cinder. 3d. Length of time of contact of gases with ore. Small furnaces and too rapid driving both waste fuel by riot allowing enough time for conversion of CO into CO2. 4th. The temperature of blast. The hotter the greater the quantity of CO2. 5th. Regularity of passage of stock through the furnace. The hanging and dropping of the stock, however slight, seems to pack it more solidly in the hearth, increases the resistance to the blast, and decreases the quantity of CO2. These are the most common causes noticed which influence the production of CO2, unless we except the one that might be considered the greatest of all, the one that has spoiled so many tons of iron, and the amiability of so many furnacemen, the one most dreaded, the great unknown. It would seem a self-evident proposition that the better the contact of the gases with the ore and the less with the fuel, the greater would be the amount of CO2 produced. To prolong the contact of gas with the ore furnaces are enlarged with advantage, and pains are taken to charge the stock in such a manner as will best promote it. Still, with furnaces of most approved construction and most skilful manipulation, the gases leave the furnace so rich in CO, that not half the heating power of the fuel is obtained, and the highest

By Gilbert P. Moore

Production in the Argentine in 1930 amounted to 1,415,099.7 metric tons, which converted into barrels of 42 gal., using the factor of 6.29, amounts to 8,909,773 bbl. This is a decrease of 481,613 bbl. from the 1929 production, which was 9,391,386 bbl. The production for 1930 was divided among three fields, as shown in Table 1. Table 2 covers Table 1.—Argentine Oil Production, 1930, by Fields Barrels Comodoro Rivadauia District Government........................................... 4,547,670 Railways Co........................................... 1,314,358 Astra-Eastern......................................... 1,016,024 Anglo-Persian......................................... 365,021 Solano Co............................................. 24,613 Dutch Shell........................................... 6,963 7,274,649 Neuquen District Government........................................... 569,245 Standard Oil-Argentina................................. 659,551 Astra-Eastern......................................... 8,234 Challaco Co. (Sol)...................................... 121,598 1,358,628 Salta District Government........................................... 90,576 Standard Oil-Argentina.................................. 185,920 276,496 8,909,773

Jan 1, 1931

By R. W. Smith, R. W. Lai

Very recently there has been a quickening of research effort in the field of silicate mineral flotation, particularly as regards the flotation of beryl.' These studies have already contributed much to the understanding of both anionic and cat-ionic flotation of silicates. Of particular interest concerning anionic flotation has been the work done on heavy metal activation of silicates by M. C. Fuerstenau and co-workers.4,7 In addition. in the paper by Fuerstenau, Rice, Somasundaran and Fuerstenau7 attention was paid to low pH anionic flotation of beryl in the absence of activators. This subject was also covered in the papers by Avotins,3

Jan 1, 1967

By Albert J. Phillips

IT is a privilege and a pleasure to deliver this, the Twenty-sixth Annual Institute of Metals Division Lecture. Eleven years ago C. A. Edwards addressed this audience on the subject "Gases in Metals." In spite of this relatively recent presentation, I propose to, present to you some quantitative considerations of industrial significance on the separation of gases from molten metals because recent observations and measurements, presented in the literature, have made it possible to evaluate mathematically the gases or gas-forming elements and to develop an understanding of the mechanism of gas separation that should permit, in many cases, the control of this baffling phenomenon. DEFINITIONS Before becoming involved in the subject it seems desirable, for the sake of clarity, to state certain definitions and axioms: I. We are dealing only with gases that separate from the molten metal either during cooling or in the transition from liquid to solid. Gases injected by the liquid stream and trapped in the solidified metal, or those forced into the solidifying metal from the mold due to either thermal or cher4ical effects are not considered. Neither are we concerned with the separation of gases within the metal after solidification is complete for the data on this subject are at least complete enough to permit the practicing metallurgist to satisfactorily control the phenomenon. 2. Only where there is a decrease in solubility or a change in equilibrium of either a gaseous element or an element that reacts to form a gaseous compound, can there be a separation of a gaseous phase from the liquid or solidifying metal. 3. The amount of gas separating from the liquid during solidification can be computed directly from the amount of the element contained in the liquid when freezing commences less the amount of the element found in the solid either as a separate solid phase or in solid solution. 4. There can be no separation of gas bubbles unless the told pressure of the gases in the liquid meld exceeds atmospheric pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure of ' the liquid metal head. (In addition, pres- sure resulting from surface tension in- creases the total pressure requirement for initial gas separation. Probably the remarkable differences in appearance caused by different gases in the same host metal are influenced greatly by the rate of diffusion of the gas in the liquid metal balancing the decrease in pressure as the gas bubble size increases and the surface tension effect decreases. Thus hydrogen with its high diffusion rate in liquid copper separates in the form of relatively coarse cavities for a given rate of heat extraction.) 5. Gas separation can take place at less than atmospheric pressure in the voids created by the shrinkage from liquid to solid, but since the voids are not caused by the gas the presence of gas in the voids is of importance only where it

Jan 1, 1947

By Frank C. Greene

The principal event in the development of oil and gas in Missouri in 1942 was the drilling of the Cities Service Oil Company's No. I Jim Cook, in the northwest corner, NW. 1/4 sec. 32, T. 65 N., R. 39 W., Atchison County, in the northwest corner of Missouri. This well, not yet completed, bailed several barrels of free oil in about 27° Baume from a sand called the Bartlesville by those in charge, at a depth of 1450 ft. The well is on a block of leases obtained after the area, which is covered by several hundred feet of glacial drift, had been prospected by core drilling. Earlier in the year the same company drilled a well on the Glen Gray farm in the southwest corner, SW. 1/4 sec. 29, T. 65 N., R. 39 w., to a depth of 2427 ft. in the Hunton lime with a rotary drill. Oil stains in this hole led to the drilling of the second well. Table i .—-Wells Drilled for Oil and Gas in Missouri in 1942 Country Number of Number of County Oil Wells Gas Wells Dry Andrew.......... Atchison.......... I Bates............ 2 6 Caldwell.......... I 3 Cass............. I Clinton........... I Holt............. I Jackson.......... I I Knox............ I Nodaway......... I Platte............ 4 4 Ray.............. 5 Sullivan.......... I Totals.......... I 7 28 Otherwise drilling in Missouri was uneventful, with a total of only 36 Completions, of which one was a very small oil well, Seven were small gas wells and 28 were dry holes. The total footage drilled was 24,7541/2 ft., of which 14,0281/2 was by cable tools and 10,726 ft. by rotary. Twelve of the dry holes were drilled into Mississip-pian or older beds. Table I gives a summary of activities by counties.

Jan 1, 1943

By Frank C. Greene

The principal event in the development of oil and gas in Missouri in 1942 was the drilling of the Cities Service Oil Company's No. I Jim Cook, in the northwest corner, NW. 1/4 sec. 32, T. 65 N., R. 39 W., Atchison County, in the northwest corner of Missouri. This well, not yet completed, bailed several barrels of free oil in about 27° Baume from a sand called the Bartlesville by those in charge, at a depth of 1450 ft. The well is on a block of leases obtained after the area, which is covered by several hundred feet of glacial drift, had been prospected by core drilling. Earlier in the year the same company drilled a well on the Glen Gray farm in the southwest corner, SW. 1/4 sec. 29, T. 65 N., R. 39 w., to a depth of 2427 ft. in the Hunton lime with a rotary drill. Oil stains in this hole led to the drilling of the second well. Table i .—-Wells Drilled for Oil and Gas in Missouri in 1942 Country Number of Number of County Oil Wells Gas Wells Dry Andrew.......... Atchison.......... I Bates............ 2 6 Caldwell.......... I 3 Cass............. I Clinton........... I Holt............. I Jackson.......... I I Knox............ I Nodaway......... I Platte............ 4 4 Ray.............. 5 Sullivan.......... I Totals.......... I 7 28 Otherwise drilling in Missouri was uneventful, with a total of only 36 Completions, of which one was a very small oil well, Seven were small gas wells and 28 were dry holes. The total footage drilled was 24,7541/2 ft., of which 14,0281/2 was by cable tools and 10,726 ft. by rotary. Twelve of the dry holes were drilled into Mississip-pian or older beds. Table I gives a summary of activities by counties.

Jan 1, 1943

By Alfred V. de Forest

We are now assembled in this hall for the eighteenth lecture in honor of the memory of our greatest American metallurgist, Henry Marion Howe. Many of his most intimate contemporaries, led, as was fitting, by Professor Sauveur, have described his vital accomplishments in three fields: as a leader in technical industrial development; in theoretical research; and finally as a teacher and source of inspiration for nearly two generations of students. In 1914 Professor Howe had retired from active teaching, but maintained his laboratory at Columbia University under the care of Arthur G. Levy, with whom he published many of the papers that later were incorporated into his last book, " The Metallography of Steel and Cast Iron." My position at the time was that of personal assistant to Professor Campbell—no pay, no duties, but the great privilege of preparing specimens, taking pictures and attending to some of the current consulting work. Whenever possible, I visited Howe's laboratory to chat with Levy and gather ideas about the wonderful field of metallography—in which I was a rank amateur, rescued by the quiet enthusiasm of Donald Smith of Princeton from an instructorship in civil engineering. Levy let me act as a fly on the wall during the Professor's occasional visits. Busy as he was, Professor Howe took the time and trouble to encourage my interest, as he had done for hun- dreds of others. He told me how he went about gathering his own information speculating as to causes, considering experiments, and verifying his conclusions. I ventured to mention some tests I had run on the irregular stretching of wires of different metals. He read the small volume I had prepared of ill-assorted facts and fancies and remarked: "Nobody cares for your theories or the history of your tests. Describe what you found as briefly as possible and perhaps I can help you to publish." Curiously enough, among my discards were some autographically recorded load-versus-electrical-resistance measurements. Taken with inadequate knowledge and equipment, these curves did not reproduce consistently, but if the relationship between strain and resistance had then been explored, the latest type of strain gauge might have been in useful service for the past 25 years. Professor Howe was a gifted teacher, perhaps because he was primarily an ardent and assiduous student. His own eagerness to learn and his willingness to revise and extend his opinions constantly encouraged those of his environment to be diligent and painstaking in the pursuit of knowledge. In honoring his memory, I also wish to bring to mind the kindly, humorous and quiet Levy, and join his name again, as it was for too brief a space in the past, with that of many-sided Henry Marion Howe. Factors oF Impact Strength The subject chosen for the Howe Memorial Lecture by Dr. Gillett last year

Jan 1, 1941

By Alfred V. de Forest

We are now assembled in this hall for the eighteenth lecture in honor of the memory of our greatest American metallurgist, Henry Marion Howe. Many of his most intimate contemporaries, led, as was fitting, by Professor Sauveur, have described his vital accomplishments in three fields: as a leader in technical industrial development; in theoretical research; and finally as a teacher and source of inspiration for nearly two generations of students. In 1914 Professor Howe had retired from active teaching, but maintained his laboratory at Columbia University under the care of Arthur G. Levy, with whom he published many of the papers that later were incorporated into his last book, " The Metallography of Steel and Cast Iron." My position at the time was that of personal assistant to Professor Campbell—no pay, no duties, but the great privilege of preparing specimens, taking pictures and attending to some of the current consulting work. Whenever possible, I visited Howe's laboratory to chat with Levy and gather ideas about the wonderful field of metallography—in which I was a rank amateur, rescued by the quiet enthusiasm of Donald Smith of Princeton from an instructorship in civil engineering. Levy let me act as a fly on the wall during the Professor's occasional visits. Busy as he was, Professor Howe took the time and trouble to encourage my interest, as he had done for hun- dreds of others. He told me how he went about gathering his own information speculating as to causes, considering experiments, and verifying his conclusions. I ventured to mention some tests I had run on the irregular stretching of wires of different metals. He read the small volume I had prepared of ill-assorted facts and fancies and remarked: "Nobody cares for your theories or the history of your tests. Describe what you found as briefly as possible and perhaps I can help you to publish." Curiously enough, among my discards were some autographically recorded load-versus-electrical-resistance measurements. Taken with inadequate knowledge and equipment, these curves did not reproduce consistently, but if the relationship between strain and resistance had then been explored, the latest type of strain gauge might have been in useful service for the past 25 years. Professor Howe was a gifted teacher, perhaps because he was primarily an ardent and assiduous student. His own eagerness to learn and his willingness to revise and extend his opinions constantly encouraged those of his environment to be diligent and painstaking in the pursuit of knowledge. In honoring his memory, I also wish to bring to mind the kindly, humorous and quiet Levy, and join his name again, as it was for too brief a space in the past, with that of many-sided Henry Marion Howe. Factors oF Impact Strength The subject chosen for the Howe Memorial Lecture by Dr. Gillett last year

Jan 1, 1941

By J. B. Bassett, E. S. Rowland

INTRODUCTION THE experimental work reported herein was inspired by the publication of a paper by Grange and Stewart,1 in which it was suggested that at low chromium contents the effect of this element on the [M,] point was greater than at higher chromium contents. It was argued that, if a small increase of chromium in solution in austenite caused a sharp lowering of the [M,] point, it might lead to an explanation of occasional unsolved stress cracking of SAE 52100 during heat treatment. Commercial hardening is carried out at temperatures of incomplete solution, leaving carbides available to enrich the austenite during any inadvertent increase in temperature. Such enrichment of the austenite in chromium content would lower the [ M,] point nearer room temperature where cracking is more likely to occur. Accordingly, it was decided to investigate the effect of chromium, in quantities between o and 2 pct, on the[ M,] point of commercial steels. Fig I summarizes the data available on chromium steels. For purposes of comparison, the [M, ] temperature values were corrected by means of the Grange and Stewart formula§ to (I) Hypoeutectoid compositions: 0.50 pct carbon and 0.80 pct manganese (2) Hypereutectoid compositions: 1.00 pct carbon and 0.35 pct manganese. Only the steels having compositions reasonably close to these corrected values were included, because large adjustments inevitably introduce increased errors such as are experienced in using the formula. The straight lines of Fig I were drawn by the authors. These data obviously do not settle the question of the effect of chromium on the [M,] point, particularly at low chromium contents. While it is fairly well established that chromium causes the [M,] to be lowered when present in quantities of I pct or more, Grange and Stewart1 have suggested that in small amounts (less than I. pct) it is more effective in lowering the[ M,] point, while Klier and Troiano2 have suggested that in small amounts it is less effective in lowering the []M,] point. Payson and Savage3 concur with Klier and Troiano and further suggest that the effect is not linear at these concentrations. Rose and Fischer4 report that small amounts of chromium actually raise the-[M,] point of a 0.20 carbon steel. MATERIAL Two series of 35 lb induction heats were melted for this work, the analyses of which are given in Table I. One series was aimed at 0.50 pct carbon and 0.80 pct manganese with chromium additions in 0.25 pct increments from o to 1.5 pct with a single heat at 2.0 pct Cr. This series was considered necessary because the commercial heat treatment of SAE 52100 does not generally introduce more than about 0.60 pct carbon in solution in the austenite. The high

Jan 1, 1948

By Francis Crockard

DURING the past five years we have probably witnessed greater technological advances than in any similar period. Industry and science have steadily marched ahead. The makers of iron and steel products have watched with great interest the development of stream-lined trains, faster and safer airplanes, the entirely new science of air-conditioning and the widespread use of stainless steels. Since 1930, we have witnessed the erection of the world's largest suspension bridge, the largest and fastest ocean liner and the spectacular Boulder Dam, while even greater things are planned in these particular fields. Other indus-tries, too, have been moving ahead rapidly. This advance in a few years has been caused primarily by the fierce competition of the depression. Now, more than ever, is the emphasis placed upon quality and service. Makers of southern merchant pig iron have been no exception and have been confronted with increasingly strict chemical specifications and with much greater stress on physical characteristics than ever before. For example, sulfur in the iron must be held very low, competition demanding that it be in the 0.020's and low 0.030's; silicon content must be held within a very narrow range, and definite requirements of phos-phorus and manganese are an essential part of the specifications. Physical characteristics are becoming of increasingly greater impor-tance. The introduction of triple-skimmed, slow-cooled iron several years ago was the first step in this direction. Now there are a few customers who buy iron by chemical analysis and physical appear-ance, having found that the analysis alone is an insufficient guide to their requirements.

Jan 1, 1935

By T. M. Gurr

The United States is the world's leading producer of phosphate rock. In 1975 according to the US Bureau of Mines' statistics, 44.3 million tonnes (48.8 million st) of phosphate rock were produced in the United States, 1 which is 40.6% of the world's production.2 The major phosphate producing areas of the United States are located in Fig. 1 and the production for 1975 is listed as follows:

Jan 6, 1979

By W. J. Helfrich, R. A. Dodd

Binary aluminum solid-solution alloys containing various amounts of silver, magnesium, and zinc were prepared by careful directional solidification, and the hydrostatic and X-ray densities were compared. With the exception of the Al(Ag) alloys, the X-ray densities were consistently greater than the hydrostatic measurements, in agreement with earlier observations by Ellwood. In contrast to Ell-wood's interpretation in terms of vacant lattice sites associated with Brillouin zone effects, a tentative explanation based on the existence of solidification microshrinkage was favored. This hypothesis was confirmed by an examination of Al(Zn) alloys prepared by vapor diffusion of zinc into aluminum. The hydrostatic and X-ray densities were now in very close agreement, and it was concluded that the filling of Brillouin zones in aluminum solid-solution alloys does not necessarily result in the formation of defect structures containing an excess of vacant lattice sites. ThE existence of defect structures of the vacancy type in alloys in which the excess vacancies have an electronic rather than a thermal or mechanical, and so forth, origin is well recognized. Examples of incomplete lattices of this type are to be found in the Ni-Al,1-3 Fe-Ni-A1,4 c~-Ni-Al,5 Fe-Cu-Al,= and Co-A17 systems. These defect structures are of a special kind in that the intermediate phases possess an ordered atomic arrangement or superlattice, and in some instances the vacancy concentration may be unusually large, e.g., at 45.25 at. pet Ni in NiA1, approximately 8.8 pet of the lattice sites are unoccupied. Ellwood8-10 has reported similar defect structures in the aluminum solid solution alloys of the Al-Zn and A1-Mg systems and in alloys of the Au-Ni system." In Al(Zn) the (apparent) vacancy concentration rose, somewhat irregularly, to a maximum of about 2 pet vacant sites at 25 at. pet Zn, while in Al(Mg) the (apparent) vacancy concentration increased continuously to 1.7 pet at 15 at. pet Mg. An explanation in terms of Brillouin zone overlap was attempted, although Pearson12 has pointed out the difficulty of reconciling the observations with zone theory. However, the possibility of the effect being caused by the Fermi surface just touching a plane of energy discontinuity inside a prominent Brillouin zone has, in general, been accepted. In fact, Massal-ski13 has interpreted Ellwood's8 observations as confirmation of Leigh's14 theoretically predicted zone overlap occurring at approximately 2.67 electrons per atom. Unfortunately, Massalski was apparently unaware that Ellwood9 had revised his earlier results considerably, and the revised data did not confirm Leigh's analysis. Ellwood's clata were reexamined by the present authors who noted a possible correlation between the percentage defects as a function of alloy composition and the temperature interval of solidification measured from the respective equilibrium diagrams. This suggested an explanation in terms of shrinkage porosity rather than vacant lattice sites, and pointed to the desirability of reexamining appropriate alloy systems using: both Ellwood's method of specimen preparation (casting followed by wrought fabrication) and alternativ'e methods, i.e., diffusion, which might be expected to minimize, or even completely obviate, microporosity. ALLOY PREPARATION 1) Cast Allolys and Aluminum Single Crystals. Al(Ag), Al(Mg;l, and Al(Zn) alloys of various compositions up to 20 at. pet silver, 13.5 at. pet mg, and 30 at. pet Zn were prepared by melting under helium and casting into graphite molds. In the first two systems, the maximum alloying addition was quite close to the limit of solid solubility, but the possibility of transformation to a' during quenching somewhat restricted the suitable Al(Zn) composition range. The alloys were prepared from high-purity aluminum, a lot analysis showing 0.002 wt pet Cu, 0.002 wt pet Fe, and 99.996 wt pet A1 by difference. The silver, magnesium, and zinc were of 99.99+, 99.98+, and 99.998 wt pet respectively. Each composition was analyzed chemically. The as-cast ingots measured 7/16 in. diam and 5 in. length. One in. was removed from the top of the ingot, and the bottom 3 in. was machined to 0.275 in. diam; a point was also machined on the smaller diameter end. The remainder of the original ingot served as a top riser during subsequent remelting and controlled solidification. The machined ingots were now remelted using a Bridgman soft-mold technique to ensure directional solidification and, therefore, a minimum of micro-shrinkage. Alumina powder was used as mold material contained in an alundum thimble, and this crucible was placed in a helium-filled Vycor tube. The assembly was lowered through a suitable temperature gradient at approximately 0.5 in. min-l, and the risered portion of the casting was subsequently removed by sawing.

Jan 1, 1962