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The continued exploration of the major brown coal deposits of the Latrobe Valley has resulted not only in the discovery of huge additional reserves, but also in new concepts of the stratigraphy and structure of the coal seams in that area. The author sets out his interpretation of the new information which has become available over the last six years.A section of the paper is devoted to the quality of the coal. As the chemical composition of these brown coals has been discussed in some detail by previous authors, only the major constituents and the heat value of the coal are dealt with in this paper. Some of the variations in quality are related to the geological structure.The occurrence of underground water and its relation to open cuts is dealt with briefly.INTRODUCTIONThe Latrobe Valley Tertiary Basin is almost entirely covered by a layer of Post Tertiary sediments which mask the underlying rocks and their structures. As a result, the geological understanding of this area has had to await the comprehensive drilling campaign in search of brown coal, initiated by the Victorian Mines Department in 1917, and subsequently carried on by the State Electricity Commission of Victoria. The first detailed geology was published by Herman (1922), and this was followed some 25 years later by papers by Edwards, and later Thomas and Baragwanath, to which reference will be made later in this paper. Herman included a section on the geology of the Latrobe Valley in his book Brown Coal, which was published in 1952.Since that time a considerable amount of new information has become available from the continued drilling carried out by the Commission. In addition, geophysical work carried out by the Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources has assisted in the defining of geological structures in the area.

Jan 1, 1960

By D Craw

The Macraes gold deposit is located in a low angle NE dipping (~15¦) shear zone, the Hyde Macraes Shear Zone (HMSZ) cutting greenschist facies metasediments of the Otago Schist. The shear zone is host to large volumes of mineralised schist and relatively sparse quartz veins. Early in the development of this through going shear the schist experienced an episode of hydro fracturing and fluid redistribution. As a result, presently exposed schists within the Intrashear sequence are pervaded by localised swarms of quartz filled pure extension and extensional shear fractures hosting goldscheelite mineralization. The swarms comprise networks or æstockworksÆ of veins that strike NE, are subvertical and form subperpendicular to the shear zone fabric. Vein frequency across strike is typically ~1 m-1, with most veins five to ten centimetres thick and vertically continuous for up to ~20 m. Many of the veins show delicately banded internal textures that are parallel to the vein margins. These bands/lamina indicate incremental growth and are defined by a variation in grain size or alternatively by thin slivers of wallrock schist, though typically uncommon. The majority of veins are overprinted by a weak plastic deformation, although primary structures are largely preserved. This deformation has produced subgrain structures, migration of grain boundaries with sutured margins and undulose extinction of grains. These microstructural observations possibly indicate that temperatures were around 300¦C during stockwork vein formation. In general, the mode of brittle failure that developed the stockwork veins can be directly related to lithological variation. The geometry of stockwork veins indicate that local vertical shortening and extension occurred in the Intrashear sequence of the HMSZ synkinematically with thrusting. Localised extension was mainly parallel to the structural trend; that is, it took place perpendicular to the direction of inferred thrusting. The development of lateral ramps most likely gave rise to extension in parts of the shear zone during continuous shortening to form swarms of stockwork veins.

Jan 1, 2004

By I F. Wood

Planning for flooding and assessment of flood impacts are important requirements for mining projects, as they are also for other types of development. With more intense development and concern from the community, supported by government regulatory requirements, assessment of flood concerns and impacts has become of increasing importance. To ensure that flooding issues are fully understood and results presented in an appropriate format, advanced hydraulic analysis procedures have been developed and are beginning to be applied. These procedures must be rigorous in an engineering context but the results must also be readily understood by the community and government agencies. Advanced two-dimensional hydraulic modelling is becoming accepted as an important means of assessing flooding issues for mining projects. With presentation of results from hydraulic models with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), flood impacts can be analysed rigorously and presented clearly. This paper discusses the application of advanced hydraulic modelling in the planning and impact assessment of a major mining project located on a floodplain where there is extensive inundation. The analysis provides for both input to the planning of the project and for detailed assessment of potential impacts. This case study illustrates some important aspects of the application of hydraulic modelling using a two-dimensional modelling to a critical flood design.

Jan 1, 2003

By Mason D. O, Tuckwell K. D

Whole rock geodhemical analyses from samples of Potosi gneiss within the Willyama Supergroup have been utilised to identify geochemical trends towards Pb/Zn ore positions. Although the analyses come from disparate sources they have been incorporated in the data base only if locational, sampling, analytical, lithological and stratigraphic descriptors were reliable. These data have been statistically analysed using programmes of the GASP software package. A discriminant function has been derived which permits Potosi gneiss associated with the Pb/Zn lode horizons in the Broken Hill domain to be distinguished from Potosi gneiss in a similar stratigraphic position in the Maybell Domain. In the "near ore" position the Potosi gneiss has significantly lower mean Na2O and significantly higher mean MnO. Also mean Rb, CaO and K20 are higher and mean Sr lower. This discriminant function serves to identify areas prospective for Pb/Zn mineralisation. A second discriminant function based on MnO, Si02 and K20/Na20 gives a semi- quantitative indication of proximity to ore.

Jan 1, 1983

By M D. Basuki Dwi Priyono

The Toguraci low sulfidation epithermal gold vein deposits are located 2 km WSW from the Gosowong mine and form part of the Gosowong Goldfield. The goldfield lies within a Neogene magmatic arc on Halmahera Island, North Maluku Province, East Indonesia. The terrain is moderate to steep, rainforested, and poorly outcropping. Exploration and mining operations are being carried out within the PT Nusa Halmahera Minerals Contract of Work (exploration tenement) jointly owned by Newcrest Mining Ltd (82.5 per cent, operator) and PT Aneka Tambang Tbk. (17.5 per cent). First pass exploration of the Gosowong area began late 1992 resulting in the discovery of weakly developed porphyry copper mineralisation (named Bora) at Toguraci in 1993. Early in the evaluation of this porphyry an overprinting epithermal Au/Ag mineralisation event was recognised, however exploration focus remained on the Bora porphyry deposit for some time. The discovery of the nearby Gosowong epithermal gold deposit and the exploration of other prospects in the area further diverted attention and funds from Toguraci. It was not until year 2000 that Toguraci was seriously reevaluated as part of a detailed appraisal of the epithermal gold potential within a 5 km radius of the Gosowong gold mine. A fly-camp based drilling campaign using man-portable rigs was undertaken between August 2000 and March 2002. All exploration at Toguraci was then stopped pending government approvals to mine. These were finally issued in May 2003 and immediately drilling restarted and pre-mine approvals (eg the environmental impact study) were sought and granted. The first Toguraci gold bar was poured in February 2004. Exploration at Toguraci and elsewhere in the Gosowong Goldfield continues today.

Jan 1, 2004

By Emerson J

Drilling has always been one of the most important parts of the exploration process with most companies spending around 25% of their budget on drilling. Although superficially there appears to be little difference in drills and drilling practice a number of major refinements have taken place over the last decade that have significantly changed the drilling scene. One of the most important advances has been in hydraulic engineering giving rise to the Dual Purpose top drive drilling rigs. These have led to significant productivity increases with the high rotation speeds and longer fleets. Downhole technology has also advanced with better hammers, stronger drill rods, impregnated coring bits and improved drilling fluids. Although geologists continue to measure drilling performance on a cost per metre basis, greater consideration is at last being paid to the quality of sample produced. This is particularly the case with RC drilling where quite sophisticated automatic and semi automatic splitting devices have been developed. Drill operators are now required to be experienced in both Diamond coring and air drilling and be better qualified to maintain the more sophisticated machinery. Management of drilling companies or drilling divisions has also had to change to accommodate both the high capital cost of equipment and the demands of keeping drilling a cost effective exercise.

Jan 1, 1987

By Rowe J

The case study is based on the largest ore deposit at Mt. Lyell; the Prince Lyell deposit, comprising a regular lensoid mass of dissemina- ted and vein pyrite-chalcopyrite mineralisation. Reserve estimation employs conventional techniques, based on diamond drill hole and relevant development sampling data. Probable ore reserves are estimated using the contouring (isoline) method an longitudinal projections for ore thickness and accumulation (m %Cu) at a '0.8% Cu' cutoff. Final stope and pillar res- erve estimates (proved ore) are derived from designed ring tonnages and contoured accumula- tion for individual mining units, following more intensive sampling. Systematic grade control procedures have been adopted and individual stopes and pillars reconciled against mill production. The proved ore estimates have been found to com- pare favourably with the reconciled production.

Jan 1, 1979

One of the most praninent Bouguer anomaly features in the Broken Hill District is the long wavelength high of 10-15 ngals above background which forms a northeast trending, oval zone sane 15 km by 45 km with Broken Hill on its northern gradient. Rock density measurements and modelling indicate that this anomaly can be explained by the presence of generally relatively higher density meta- sediments extending from the surface to a depth of about 2000 m. The regional Bouguer anomaly data show that the Willyama Block and Euriowie Block are mostly overlain by a fairly smooth Bouguer anomaly high in the range 5-15 mgals, whilst the surrounding younger sediment covered areas, including the Mundi Mundi Plain, Murray Basin fringe and Bancannia Trough, are mostly overlain by lows which range to minus 30 mgals. Thus in terms of the gravity pattern the Willyama and Euriowie Blocks form a fairly continuous and haogeneous entity. However, the 5-10 mgals relative low over part of the Torrowangee Synclinorial Zone indicates that the Adelaidean System metasediments are in aggregate slightly less dense than the Willyama Supergroup metasediments. The low can be modelled to indicate a basement link between the Broken Hill and Euriowie Blocks at 1000-2000 m depth.

Jan 1, 1983

By Y Gu

The Mineral Liberation Analyser (MLA) employs the technologies of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). The use of backscattered electron images to define phase boundaries produces very high resolution image analysis and subsequently detailed and accurate particle images and data output. The mineralogy, elemental deportment, grain size, liberation characteristics and mineral associations of a large number of samples can be described. The MLA uses a comprehensive set of analysis methods to meet a wide range of applications. The data from ore characteristion projects completed during feasibility studies are important aids for effective plant design. The MLA can be used to establish variation in the mineralogy of an orebody, identify and quantify the deportment of deleterious elements, and provide valuable information to support comminution and flotation test work. In established plants the MLA data is an important component of plant survey work and monthly composite samples. Changes in feed characteristics and/or operating conditions can be monitored and solutions to any deterioration in recovery and grade performance found. The MLA has extensive applications in the minerals industry. Rare and precious metal samples can be accurately measured using high-resolution grey-scale images. Several new measurement techniques have been developed to perform rapid searches of a large number of samples to provide efficient and accurate analyses of fine-grain, low concentrate material. Quantifying the mineral variability in mineral sands operations is essential to maximising grades and recovery. The MLA produces particle-based data on density, mineralogy, size and shape and has developed measurement techniques to provide the elemental quantification required for the characterisation of these deposits. Nickel sulfide ores can be analysed to provide modal mineralogy, elemental deportment and liberation and locking data. The low-grade and variable nickel mineralogy of these deposits makes the use of quantitative mineralogy an essential component of maximising returns. Coarse particle measurements preserve the in situ textures of ores and support flotation and breakage test work for feasibility studies. The deportment of penalty and bonus elements can be quantified and the association and grain-size data can be used to identify potential separation issues.

Jan 1, 2006

For several decades miners have been obliged to maintain a vast supply of sharp steels at the working face to meet the hungry needs of rock-drills. In medium and large size mines this has meant the setting up of an organisation to store steels, to make and sharpen bits with all the complication and skill of forging, hot milling and heat treatment, and to transport sharp and dulled steels to and from the working face with all its labour, wastage, and inconvenience to other mining operations.In a mine with 250 rock-drills in use, a flow of more than 60,000 sharpened steels each month has to be maintained to keep the machines fully employed, so some idea of the magnitude of this problem may be grasped.For a long time it has been apparent that it is mainly the bit itself that wears, and many attempts have been made to reduce the enormity of the problem by providing detachable steel bits which could either be used once and rejected, or sharpened three or four times before rejection.At the same time metallurgists have striven to 'improve the quality of the steel and the heat treatment afforded it so that a bit, readily workable In a normal mine drill-shop, could be produced having a high resistance to wear and fatigue; but, although various alloy steels have been marketed, it is still usual to find many mines relying on a "straight" carbon (0.6 - 0.9% C.) steel for their drill steels.Since 1915 increasing use has been made of tungstencarbide as a cutting implement in the engineering industry. Where, on account of its great hardness and long life, it...

Jan 1, 1948

The prevention of silicosis by metallic aluminium has been reported by Denny, Robson, and Irwin in two papers. The first was published in 1937; the second, in 1939. The results definitely established that silicosis was prevented in animals by the inhalation of small quantities of aluminium. The present communication records subsequent progress in this field of research.

Jan 1, 1944

Traditionally, the predominant drilling method in open pit mining has been large hole rotary drilling using cumbersome, inflexible equipment offering merely limited scope for improvements in pit design and overall costs. By contrast, the recent development of comparatively light high-pressure down-the-hole hammer crawlers has paved the way for new ideas and trends. High penetration rates coupled with superior mobility and fast set-ups contributing to substantial productivity gains have resulted in a renascence for this drilling method in open pits. The ability to cover a wide range of hole diameters and angles gives designers unique drill pattern possibilities especially when establishing steep and stable pit slopes. As pre-split holes, buffer holes and production holes all can be drilled by using the same equipment, there are, there are obvious advantages in production scheduling as well as in materials handling and service. This paper presents some case stories, which will demonstrate the benefits and improvements that the introduction of new drilling methods and equipment has brought to open pit mining operations.

Jan 1, 2003

By K C. Corin, N Ndamase, M Tadie

Mining operations in arid regions are compelled to reduce their consumption of fresh water. Closed water circuits are an attractive solution and, in addition to reducing freshwater consumption, have the added benefit of reducing reagent consumption as well as the environmental impact by eliminating effluent discharge. Accumulating ionic species have been shown to hinder collector adsorption which reduces the recovery of valuable minerals. Numerous studies have investigated the effect of degrading water quality on collector adsorption however there is very limited understanding as to how this takes place from an electrochemical perspective. This study therefore aims to investigate how the presence of accumulating ionic species at varying concentrations affects the electrochemical adsorption of sodium ethyl xanthate onto galena. The synthetic plant water used in this study comprised of single salt solutions to isolate the effects of the ionic species of interest. The ionic strengths were varied between 0.0242 M, 0.0727 M, 0.1212 M and 0.2426 M which correspond to University of Cape Town (UCT) Centre for Minerals Research (CMR) synthetic plant waters of 1, 3, 5 and 10SPW, respectively. Mineral rest potentials indicated how changing water quality affected xanthate-mineral interactions. Microflotation observed the impact of changing water quality on mineral floatability.

Aug 24, 2022

The weathering profile, in arid terrains, is commonly capped by different kinds of hardened crust, whose formation is related to recent or former climates. One may distinguish silcretes, calcretes and the ferruginous (or ferro-aluminous) laterites. the present keynote address mostly deals with the lateritic regolith and, moreover, the influence it has on mineral exploration. The lateritic regolith, also called "cuirasse", is a result of a massive accumulation of Fe (and/or Al) oxides on top of weathering profiles developed during former, probably seasonal humid, climatic episodes, and whose preservation depends on the characteristics of later climates. The total thickness of such weathering profiles commonly exceeds 50 m, with an almost complete substitution of the rock forming minerals by secondary minerals as kaolinite and Fe-Al oxi- hydroxides (hematite, goethite, boehmite, gibbsite). Such an alteration of the primary minerals assemblage is of course accompanied by significant changes of the chemical composition, as concerns major and trace elements. The latter are distributed amongst the main secondary mineral phases or trapped in some primary resistant minerals, but may also be leached, totally or partially. Gold is also affected by lateritic weathering, as shown for instance by morphoscopic and geochemical studies of gold grains collected in the different horizons of the profile, which indicates some dissolution followed by reprecipitation.

Jan 1, 1988

The Honeymoon Well nickel sulphide deposits are located in the Agnew-Wiluna greenstone belt, about 45 km south of Wiluna. Both disseminated and massive sulphide nickel deposits are hosted by komatiitic rocks within the deformed and metamorphosed Honeymoon Well ultramafic complex. Fresh ultramafic bedrock is covered by up to 50 m of highly conductive transported material which greatly hampers both exploration and understanding of the bedrock geology. In the early-1970s, mineralisation was discovered by diamond drilling geochemical anomalies defined by wide-spaced percussion drilling over ultramafics that had been outlined by ground magnetics. Subsequent drilling has defined a resource of 158 Mt at 0.71 per cent nickel (based on 0.4 per cent nickel cut-off, 300 m below surface, December 1995) in four deposits. Over the life of the project a wide range of geophysical techniques have been used including airborne and ground magnetics, time domain clectromagnetics (EM), induced polarisation (IP)/resistivity, gravity and downhole techniques including EM, IP and physical property Measurements.

Jan 1, 1996

The treatment of the Broken Hill ores has,undergone many changes during the last ten years, and it may be of interest to some of the members to know what are the main lines on which the Proprietary Mine works at present. It must be understood that the want of absolute uniformity in the treatment amongst the various mines at the Barrier does not prove that some of the mines are working on wrong lines, for the ore is not exactly the same along the whole line of lode; this necessitates a variation in treatment, although generally only in detail.At the Proprietary Mine the ore is all mined by contract the miners are paid so much per ton for clean ore. The ore in the mine in most stopes is mixed with gangue, and the inclination of the uliners is, of course, to mix gangue with the ore, so as to be paid for as large 3 tonnage as possible. This is quite natural clean ore is easily distinguishable from clean gangue, but most lumps are a mixture of clean ore and gangue in varying proportions. The miner will naturally throw into his heap pieces which he considers still good enough, whilst the management may consider these pieces just a trifle too poor; consequently a check must be kept on this.This necessitates the first operation to which the ore is submitted. 'The trucks tare 51 cwt.; average load 21 cwt.), as they are loaded underground, have a ticket attached::showing to whiyh contract they belong on arrival at the top of the shaft they are passed over a weigh bridge...

Jan 1, 1907

By Sakai S, Suga S, Bisque RE

Soil gases were collected on activated charcoal, analyzed by computerized mass spectrometry and treated with multivariate statistical pattern recognition to determine the diagnostic geochemical signature associated with the Okuaizu Geothermal Field in Japan. From this a geothermal model was developed and compare to 175 "unknown" samples in a 250 m spaced grid over 30 1Qn2 mapping the areas with a matching geochemical character. Faults and fractures were generally located by the presence of high molecular weight components. Following the initial survey, the faults in two specific areas were precisely located by a second survey with samples at 10-30m spacing. Where earlier geochemical surveys had placed anomalies 1-2 Km northeast of the geothermal center, the fingerprint survey accurately mapped the system and detected several faulted zones. It was not misled by hot springs located away from the geothermal System.

Jan 1, 1987

The paper is aimed at mining engineers and other mining practitioners in the metalliferous mining industry who are considering the use of roadheaders and wish to understand the basic geomechanical and operational principles controlling their performance. The paper aims to address metalliferous minersÆ general unfamiliarity with roadheader technology, which is one of the factors which has limited the application of these machines in such mines. The historical development of drag tool mechanical excavation machines is briefly discussed, and factors affecting the application of roadheaders are mentioned. The mechanics of cutting with drag tools is then reviewed as are the effects of these and tool wear on tool performance. The implications of tool performance to roadheader performance are mentioned, the potential benefits of high pressure waterjet assistance are discussed and the relative performances of different tool types and materials are compared. Roadheader performance factors including productivity and utilisation are mentioned, and the state-of-the-art of conventional roadheaders is discussed in the context of machine weight, power and cutting head configuration. The influence of these and rock strength on machine productivity is analysed. Alternative, developing technologies are discussed which may extend the effective use of mechanical excavation into stronger rock masses which are beyond the range of conventional roadheaders. Finally, conclusions on these discussions are presented, along with recommendations for continuing research and development.

Jan 1, 1997

By N K. DavT, A Coggan

The performance of in situ, shallow water covers in controlling acid generation was evaluated at four recently decommissioned pyritic uranium tailings sites at Elliot Lake, Ontario, Canada. The tailings are acid generating, having a pyrite content of approximately five to ten per cent and a very low to non-existent alkaline buffering capacity. Adverse market conditions led to the closure of all operating uranium mines in the early- to mid-1990s, followed by rehabilitation and decommissioning of mine and waste management facilities. In order to control acidic drainage, all new and active tailings areas at Denison, Quirke, Panel, Spanish-American and Stanleigh mine sites were re-engineered to provide in situ submersion of these tailings under shallow water covers. The tailings impoundment dams were upgraded and reinforced or in some cases reconstructed, to minimise seepages and provide a minimum 1 m depth of water cover. With the exception of Stanleigh mine, which was closed in 1996 and rehabilitated during the late-1990s, the water covered Tailings Management Areas (TMAs) at other sites have been in operation for a period of six to nine years. The surface water quality at these sites is maintained at near neutral pH conditions by periodic addition of lime slurry to the established water covers. Additional treatment of effluent is provided as required to meet the discharge water quality standards. The performance of the established water covers at the sites was evaluated by analysing the annual equivalent limestone consumption data. The results were compared with the performance of an older, decommissioned Nordic TMA, which was rehabilitated using revegetation techniques. The water covers at these sites are performing as designed and acid generation has been reduced to low levels. Based on the total amount of yearly equivalent limestone required to maintain water quality in the water cover and at the effluent treatment plant, it is concluded that acid generation rate at the Denison TMA has reduced to less than 0.15 per cent of its pre-water cover conditions during normal operation and rehabilitation periods. In comparison to the revegetated Nordic TMA, the acid generation rates at Denison and Panel TMAs have decreased to less than 1.6 per cent of that at the Nordic TMA. The acid generation rate at the Quirke TMA was comparable or only slightly lower than that at the Nordic TMA because of its unique terraced cell configuration, having tailings in five hydraulically interconnected cells at different elevations. Historic acidity and oxidation reaction products, accumulated during normal operating and pre-water cover periods, are flushing from upstream locations to downstream cells, thus requiring much higher equivalent limestone additions for acid neutralisation and effluent treatment.

Jan 1, 2003

By J Boland

Polycrystalline diamond compacts (PDC) have been widely used as cutting elements in the drilling tools for the oil, gas, civil and mining industries because of their faster penetration rates and longer bit life. US Department of Energy reports that PDC bits account for more than one-third of the total footage drilled worldwide (US Department of Energy, 2004). However, non-thermally-stable diamond composites (NTSDC) have seldom been applied to geothermal drilling, since premature failures of such PDC cutters have been observed in hard rock formations. Several factors need to be considered to prevent premature failure of cutters and improve cutting performance when using PDC-based bits and other rock cutting tools. The first set of factors consists of the strength, density, stiffness, toughness and thermal resistance of the PDC and the rock. A second set relates to the complex behaviour of the bonding between the PDC cutter and the bit matrix, or the pick and the pick holder, which is vital in maintaining stable, reliable and durable adhesion of the cutters to their hubs. Finally, based on a better understanding of the cutting processes, the formulation of a predictive model would assist in further development of cutter design.

Jan 1, 2004