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By J. V. R. Prasada Rao

India is dependent for 60% of its annual requirement of copper and the entire quantity of nickel and cobalt on imports from outside the country. Land-based resources are either too meager or of too low a concentration for economic exploitation. This has prompted the country to look to deep seabed re- sources for meeting its rising demand for these metals. The Ocean Policy of the Government of India announced in 1982 talks about the need to map and assess the availability of minerals in the deep sea and to develop necessary technologies for exploration and exploitation of seabed minerals. To be self-reliant such technologies would have to be largely developed, tested and operated indigenously. The adoption of the Law of the Sea Convention in 1982 gave a fillip to India's desire to get into the field of deep seabed mining. India applied for recognition as a Pioneer Investor in Ocean Mining in 1983 and received allotment of a mine site of 150,000 km2 in the Central Indian Ocean in August 1987. Simultaneously, the Government has taken up a programme of development of technologies for exploration of the mine site for resource assessment, environmental monitoring also to meet the commitments like relinquishment of 50% of the area to the Preparatory Commission. Technologies for exploitation of these seabed resource like the mining system, transportation and extractive metallurgy have also been taken up for development in various research institutes largely in the government sector. While India's objective in the long term is to meet the shortage of copper, nickel, cobalt and manganese by the turn of the century, in the short term, the programme aims at application of the seabed mining technologies to meet the immediate needs of the country such as: a. Exploration for oil and natural gas. b. Exploration and exploitation of placer minerals and other deposits at shallow depth in India's EEZ.

Jan 1, 1994

By R. P. Das

Processing of polymetallic nodules poses several challenges to metallurgists. These include the presence of at least 80 elements in nodule, presence of Ni, Cu, Co in no specific mineral form, presence of almost 30 % seawater in freshly collected nodule, and collection of slime along with the nodule. For almost 40 years, several research groups from all over the world are engaged in developing an appropriate process to extract metals from poly-metallic nodule. These processes have been tested in scales varying from few grams to several hundred kilograms (Das, 2001; Jandova, 2001). All these tests helped in defining various parameters for processing, and simultaneously brought out some of the inherent problems of processing nodules. Based on the information and the experience of all these studies, in recent years, most research groups, involved in developing metallurgical processes for nodule, are focusing their efforts in two or three alternative directions. While attempts are made to overcome some of the major challenges in processing, several new ones crop up. The difficulties are further compounded because no mining system is operating to generate some of the data required for process development. The aim of this presentation is to highlight the research efforts, and to identify areas requiring special attention of a process developer.

Jan 1, 2003

By Andreas Kaede

INTRODUCTION Due both to the political history of UNCLOS and the sensitivity of the ocean floor and environment to man made impacts, both the Convention (including also the 1994 Amendment) and subsequent codification (such as the ISA draft code on Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Area) put a focus on information about, and conveyance of, technology employed by interested deepsea mining companies, to inter alia the Authority and developing countries. In contrast, companies usually are (or by their nature should be) interested in safeguarding their technology and business secrets in order to secure unique selling propositions in a competitive environment. On the background of the meanwhile maturing regulatory régimes on deep sea mining, the presentation will look into some of the key regulatory provisions mirroring these apparently antagonistic interests, how the players involved could deal with them, and how they might in some cases be reconciled. Progress of Presentation The presentation will start by briefly examining some classical methods of protection of technology, such as patents, copyrights, and (not the least) secrecy. It will be found that some of the statutory means of protection due to their territorial character may face problems in being implemented in areas outside national jurisdiction, such as the Area, but that, thinking globally, they nevertheless retain much of their value for the purpose of protection. Depending on available presentation time, a model case may be used to illustrate the above – and also some of the following – findings.

Jan 1, 2018

By John C. Wiltshire

Hawai'i is surrounded by a series of potentially valuable marine mineral deposits. These include manganese nodules between Hawai'i and Mexico, cobalt-rich manganese crusts and phosphorites in the Exclusive Economic Zone around the Hawaiian Island Archipelago, Johnston Island and the neigh- boring island states and sand and gravel deposits off the main Hawaiian Islands largely in State waters. Hawai'i has an economy that is very narrowly based on the tourist industry. In an effort to avoid the difficulties coming from such a vulnerable economy, significant efforts have been made toward economic diversification. The State has set up a range of programs looking to find new industries. New ocean industries figure prominently among these efforts as Hawai'i is surrounded by ocean. Naturally, among new ocean industries the potential for new marine mineral industries is significant given that Honolulu is the only full service port in the Central Pacific and Hawai'i is in the middle of the mineral belt. The port of Honolulu is now being actively used by mineral exploration vessels of several countries and with the current number of ship visits varying from 10-15 per year, this puts several million dollars a year into the State economy. It helps to fulfill the State's goal of dynamic growth in the ocean sector of the economy. Nonetheless, a major marine minerals industry, particularly one which would involve processing of minerals in Hawai'i, is controversial in a State whose main source of revenue is tourist expenditures based on the image of a pristine environment. In addition to the perceived threat to the hotel and fishing industry, is the whole highly emotional debate concerning preservation and development. To complicate the issue further, the major interest in developing a marine minerals is currently largely from Korea and China rather than from domestic U.S. industry. On the other side of the debate is the fact that the State's economy is hampered by many low paying jobs and a lack of technical jobs. This is further exacerbated by the fact that lower paying jobs are held disproportionately by people of Hawaiian and Pacific Island ancestry. Naturally, this leads over time to a certain amount of resentment. The higher paying technical lobs associated with a minerals processing industry could help to alleviate this problem.

Jan 1, 1996

By Derek V. Ellis

This article is a summary, with documentation and references, of recent global developments in identifying environmental issues affecting the marine mining industry. It is recognised that marine mining for various products occurs at various depths from shallow water (e.g. aggregate and diamond mining) potentially to great depths (e.g. metalliferous muds, and manganese crusts and nodules). Nevertheless there are environmental issues in common, even though the options for resolutions will vary greatly. The point of this review is to identify the issues, so that where site-specific resolutions are considered, it is possible to draw on experience with the issues elsewhere. Related mining issues, e.g. tailings effluent quality, orebody geochemistry, are mentioned where relevant but are not detailed in this article, although obviously they are a part of there solutions to the environmental issues. The environmental issues and their resolutions are important - on the basis of the ethic of not creating more impact than is inevitable, and the long-term financial and social costs at a mine-site of not getting the resolutions right.

Jan 1, 2000

By Wiebe Boomsma

INTRODUCTION Starting in February 2014, 19 partners from EU industry, research institutions and academia joined forces and formed the Blue Mining consortium. In the following four years, they have set out to work on the development of deep sea mining technology, looking into exploration, identification, economic assessment and vertical transport systems for the mining of seafloor massive sulphides and polymetallic nodules. In the beginning 2018 this research & development project has come to an end. The Blue Mining project was one of the first EU subsidised projects embracing the TRL system. This system describes a method of de-risking technology using a simple 9-step approach. This method requires experimental testing in laboratory and relevant environments to be able to reach the higher levels (TRL>5) This paper will discuss the progress in development of the vertical transport system, with a focus on the performed experimental work. This paper will discuss three topics: • Booster station technology • Riser dynamics • Vertical hydraulic transport process. BOOSTER STATION TECHNOLOGY Deep knowledge of transport processes is a prerequisite for a clog free vertical transport One of the key technologies in the VTS is the booster station. The centrifugal pump booster station concept is developed in Blue Mining, it consists of two centrifugal pumps and multiple valves, assembled in member-type frame. Deep sea conditions pose special requirements on all components due to the extreme pressures at large water depths. In the Blue Mining project a Deep Sea Special Motor has been developed and tested in laboratory and in the field. The motor is completely filled, lubricated and cooled using seawater due to its unique open structure, furthermore it does not require any lubricants minimizing the environmental pressure of the motor. The motor is first extensively tested in a laboratory, after these tests have been concluded successfully, the motor is shipped to Norway where it has been successfully tested for more than 100 hours at 425 meter water depth.

Jan 1, 2018

By Hans Smit

Start here.

Jan 1, 2018

By C. W. Devey, K. S. Lackschewitz

The mineralogy and geochemistry of hydrothermally altered wall rocks from different modern basaltic- and felsic-hosted hydrothermal fields at seafloor spreading centers and convergent margins have been studied to determine the characteristics of different types of alteration and to calculate the magnitudes of elemental exchanges between seawater and wall rock.

Aug 24, 2006

By Simon McDonald

The Neptune Group was established in 1999 to apply for exploration permits within New Zealand’s 200nm EEZ. These applications were to investigate and commercialise hydrothermal Seafloor Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits identified by international researchers and to locate others. SMS are volcanically related seafloor accumulations of copper, lead and zinc with high levels of gold and silver. Neptune has three granted exploration licenses within the New Zealand EEZ and has application in other jurisdictions. Neptune undertook the world’s first commercial drilling exploration work of SMS in December of 2005.

Aug 24, 2006

By Jan Stenlokk

The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, which is the Government agency for the management of offshore geo-resources including seabed minerals, is about to finish this year’s marine data acquisition cruise in the Norwegian Sea. We would very much like to present the preliminary results of that cruise, including the discovery of a new black smoker and surrounding sulphide deposits.

Jan 1, 2018

By Sander van Leeuwen

Outline: · De Regt Marine Cables. · The link between system requirements and umbilical requirements (which system requirements have the largest impact on the umbilical design). · Design options for deep sea mining umbilicals (showing the various options for strength member constructions, power conductors and data-transmission). · Technical challenges and risks (outline on the most important technical challenges and risks involved in the construction, production and usage of deep sea umbilicals). · Umbilicals for the SWORD and Blue Nodules project.

Jan 1, 2018

By Richard H. T. Garnett

The first, profitable, marine placer mining started with tin 100 years ago but no major industry developed until the mid-20th. Century. Dredging at sea yielded cassiterite in both South Thailand and Indonesia, and remains an important state-run industry in the latter country. Malaysia and Russia have also contributed production, and the coastal waters of Tasmania and England have been explored. Marine placer deposits of gold have been examined in New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, Russia and West Africa. Philippino deposits were dredged during the 1930s. Fifty years later, at Nome in Alaska, gold was recovered by dredging from the offshore, and the technical/economic benefits of a seabed-deployed crawler were first demonstrated. Off the coast of Namibia placer diamonds were recovered by airlift mining during the 1960’s, but De Beers effectively started the existing marine diamond industry in 1989. The Wirth drill and a crawler continue to be used by the company, and plans recently have been announced for operations in South African waters. Other commodities such as mineral sands, platinum group minerals, and chromite have been investigated offshore in several worldwide localities.

Aug 24, 2006

By Colin Devey

As marine research scientists we especially appreciate the uniqueness and complexity of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent fauna and environments, and are particularly interested in preserving vents for their scientific, aesthetic, ecological, and potential economic values. In fact, because of the specialized nature of the equipment required to work at deep-sea hydrothermal vents, such as occupied and unoccupied research submersibles, scientists are the primary group of people who have the opportunity to visit these extraordinary environments. The potential for significant impact of scientific activities on a single vent site or a population of vent animals pales in comparison to the potential for disturbance by volcanic/tectonic events or industrial mining/harvesting activities. Nonetheless, we recognize that some scientific activities could adversely affect individual sites or impact communities more than is necessary, if research activities are not carefully planned and executed. In addition, because only a limited number of sites are currently known and scientists from a wide variety of disciplines frequently work at single locations, we recognize the potential for use conflicts among scientists, at sites where scientific activity is intense.

Aug 24, 2006

By Kokichi Iizasa

Kuroko-type deposits exist in Japanese EEZ. Some of them are present in the Izu-Ogasawara oceanic island arc south of Tokyo. Major two Kuroko-type deposits occur in the area. One is the Sunrise hydrothermal field occurring on the caldera floor of Myojin knoll, which is likely to be the developed stage in sulfide mineralization. Another is present in the crater of Suiyo seamount that is the early stage of sulfide mineralization. The two deposits are here presented on the growth history based on samples recovered by Benthic Multicoring System (BMS).

Jan 1, 2002

By Hyun Sub Kim

Subsea mineral deposit exploration aboard the R/V Onnuri was performed along the northern Central Indian Ridge (CIR) between 8°S and 17°S in December 2009 ~ January 2010 (09IR Leg01 and 09IR Leg02) and December 2010~ January 2011 (10IR Leg01, 10IR Leg02, and 10IR Leg03). Final goal of the expedition for the first Korean research cruise on mid ocean ridge system is to define seafloor massive sulfide ore bodies through searching the active hydrothermal vents nearby spreading centers as well as to elucidate the nature of spreading segments of the northern CIR area where no systematic survey have been operated before by mapping and sampling of volcanic rocks. The preliminary result of topographical interpretations of bathymetry clearly display ocean core complex between 10°S and 11°S. The ocean core complex is featured by topographic-high area with corrugated surface. Lineaments of corrugations of the ocean core complex are clearly perpendicular to abyssal hill direction which is triggered by symmetric-normal faults. Ocean core complex are favor for hydrothermal fluid path because of the long-lived faults. In further exploration, more detailed examination, including systematic CTD casting and tows, need to narrow down actual venting site around ocean core complex. Magnetic field survey is able to estimate the location of hydrothermal vents with the properties that high temperature of hydrothermal fluids over Curie-point can cause thermal demagnetization. In magnetization intensity map, most of low magnetization zones are located at the nodal point over the ridge axis and the ocean core complex.

Jan 1, 2011

By Odyssey Marine Exploration

Odyssey is a world leader in marine exploration and has undertaken expeditions in varying environments throughout the world addressing many commercial and regulatory demands. Odyssey works in a variety of settings such as shallow coastal territorial waters, abyssal plains in exclusive economic zones, and high seas in international waters on projects involving mineral exploration, environmental analysis, oceanographic survey, and recovery operations. Odyssey Marine Exploration (Odyssey) excels in adaptively managing programs from initial concept through realization of commercial goals while successfully satisfying the regulatory and engineering demands of deep sea projects. This poster presentation reveals best practices throughout a project life cycle and presents case studies in areas including but not limited to: • Research practices to identify and define valuable subsea resources • Project planning and licensing to achieve project goals and meet regulatory requirements • Optimizing offshore operations to achieve desired results • Designing projects to support processing and commercial programs

Jan 1, 2018

By Fredrik Søreide

The Norwegian EEZ contains large areas of interest for SMS exploration along the Mid- Atlantic Ridge, from Jan Mayen to Svalbard. At the same time Norwegian companies engaged in oil and gas activities are in the forefront of subsea development. This makes Norway ideally positioned to take a leading role within marine minerals research and commercialization. In the recent minerals strategy from the Norwegian Government marine minerals was pointed out as one of the strategic areas for the future. The Norwegian University of Science and Technology has established a research program in cooperation with Norwegian industry partners to determine the commercial potential of marine minerals in Norwegian EEZ. This presentation will give an overview of the status of marine minerals research and potential in Norway.

Sep 14, 2011

By Kyung-Ho Park

The smelting leaching process is known as one of the most favorite methods for the processing of deep-sea manganese nodules because of its smaller environmental impact and easiness of manganese recovery. The sulphuric acid pressure leaching of the matte prepared from deep-sea manganese nodules was studied to dissolve the valuable metals. Almost complete dissolution of Cu, Ni, and Co from matte was achieved under the following conditions: leaching temperature 180°C, time 4 hours, PO2 10 kgs/cm2, acid concentration 2.5% (vol/vol), pulp density 5%, ammonium sulphate 40 g/l. Under these conditions the iron concentration of leach liquor was 0.95 g/l. Optimization of leaching parameters was carried out by statistical design of experiments using 23 full factorial matrix. The linear and interaction co-efficients were evaluated for dissolution of metal values and also for iron concentration in leach liquors.

Jan 1, 2003

By Freddy Pøhner

The paper describes recent advances in the technology for mapping of the seabed with acoustic instrumentation. These instruments are typically single beam echo sounders, multibeam echo sounders and high resolution sub bottom profiler. For the single beam echo sounders, new features for deep water mapping are described, as well as the possibility for combining investigation of shallow areas with side scan sonar and vertical echo sounding in the same instrument. Multibeam echo sounding technology for deep and shallow water is reviewed, and some new high resolution instruments using dynamic beam focusing is presented. The sediment profiling technology deals with a novel design for high resolution sub bottom profiling, based upon a Mills Cross transducer with resolution as good as 3 degree in its largest configuration and a frequency range of 2,5 ? 7 kHz. Remarkable features of the system are a very high ping rate even for deep water, and the capability to map buried objects or structures by several simultaneous beams. Some results obtained with the first installation on the French research vessel ?Beatemps Beaupré? are presented.

Jan 1, 2003

By Karstein Vestgard

During the last few years autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) technology has evolved from concept demonstrators towards commercial products. The driving forces are the move for energy exploitation towards deeper waters, naval applications and the Internet driven need for more intercontinental underwater communication cables. Other applications emerging for the future will be within environmental research and monitoring and deepwater exploration. Deepwater developments beyond the continental shelf will require the same level of survey data quality and intervention access as established for shallow water. The potential for cost savings is two folds. Firstly, there is a reduction in the survey cost it self and secondly there is a considerable cost saving by avoiding over design of subsea installations due to lack of sufficient documentation of the field. In this scenario, there is an increasing understanding that underwater robotics and in particular AUVs will play an important role in future survey and subsea engineering work. The AUV as a free swimming underwater survey sensor carrier has several advantages compared to cable controlled ROV?s and deep towed systems: The paper prepared for the ?Underwater Mining Institute 2003? on Jeju Island, Korea will focus on the HUGIN AUV concept and field results to date.

Jan 1, 2003