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L. D. Ricketts, New York, N. Y.-In recent years the metallurgical field of the copper industry has expanded greatly, the copper ores have become lean and diverse in character, and we are obliged to treat such ores on a very large scale. On the commercial side, the operating and consulting staffs of ,the great mining companies have been enlarged and organized, and no great capital expenditure is decided upon until it has been investigated and recommended by a highly organized force of specialists as a committee. I believe that in the scientific field and in the most valuable proceedings of our various societies the old idea of one-man point of view and one-man treatment of principle and detail together has been. splendidly developed and should continue, but for the advancement of our art we should deliberately discuss subjects among ourselves in order to do away with the idiosyncrasies of the individual and to gain a composite view representing the best thought of many men. In the development of new ideas leading to the introduction of new methods, the societies could enlarge their present great field of usefulness if such discussion be had, and in my opinion further great good could be done if a number of men of different qualifications and experience would join in preparing a joint book, each dealing with his particular problem, but consulting the other men. In this way individualism would be preserved and various processes would be described, and if properly reviewed the paper would be palpably capable of analysis, and the student would have at his command the associated efforts of a group of qualified engineers.

Jan 4, 1915

By C. E. Lesher

Coal has been fighting a rear-guard action since the last World War. The battle against competitive fuels has been largely guerilla warfare with more sniping within the ranks than of organized opposition. Oil and natural gas are the fuels that over these twenty odd years have driven coal backward and out of many profitable markets. Now, somewhat timidly, the coal industry is trying a new weapon; namely, Research, or let us more properly say, Organized Research. Engineers have been designing this weapon for many years, supported by those interested in coal, including some coal producers. A part of this pioneer work has been Fundamental Research, the Ph.D. kind that is over the heads of most of us. Another part has been aimed at immediate objectives and realizable profits, the practical, man-in-the-street sort. That is Industrial Research. Enough has been accomplished to make a fair exhibit, but whether this new weapon will have sufficient fire power to rout the opposition, whether the industry will really go into production and use it, the next few years will tell. Need foR Coal Research To utter "Research" is to use the modern magic word; to conjure up the miraculous—rubber from weeds; radar; magnesium from sea water; yes, even gasoline from coal. Research is a very general term. It means something different to every man. What is the coal industry seeking with its research; or what should it seek? And, specifically, how is it going about the job; and is it taking the best way? There are many who say that Coal has been asleep at the switch, while Oil and Gas have been taking the energy business. In an organized way this is true. Large-scale, privatelyfinanced research is just started in the Pennsylvania anthracite industry, and it is still a dream for bituminous coal. What has been done so far collectively is purely defensive; as, for instance, to improve mechanical devices for burning coal so as to be able to recover markets for house-heating fuel long since abandoned to oil and gas. To appreciate just how seriously bituminous coal has slipped back in the national economy in the past 2 5 years, one has only to recall that, in the last war the Navy required for its operations all the high-grade, low-volatile coal that could be produced, and that anthracite was withdrawn from the middle and northwest markets to keep the eastern seaboard warm. All coal was "rationed" by zones, if not to individuals. Now the Navy, the Armed forces and the Merchant Marine are propelled by oil and gasoline. Gasoline and heating oil are rationed to individuals. Production of all coal in this country in 1918 reached the historic figure of 678,200,-000 tons, and in 1943, after 25 years, it is expected to reach a special wartime total of 660,000,000 tons. Meanwhile, production of crude oil this year may exceed 1 ,500,000,000 bbl., and like that of natural gas, reach four times the amount produced in 1918.

Jan 1, 1944

By C. E. Lesher

Coal has been fighting a rear-guard action since the last World War. The battle against competitive fuels has been largely guerilla warfare with more sniping within the ranks than of organized opposition. Oil and natural gas are the fuels that over these twenty odd years have driven coal backward and out of many profitable markets. Now, somewhat timidly, the coal industry is trying a new weapon; namely, Research, or let us more properly say, Organized Research. Engineers have been designing this weapon for many years, supported by those interested in coal, including some coal producers. A part of this pioneer work has been Fundamental Research, the Ph.D. kind that is over the heads of most of us. Another part has been aimed at immediate objectives and realizable profits, the practical, man-in-the-street sort. That is Industrial Research. Enough has been accomplished to make a fair exhibit, but whether this new weapon will have sufficient fire power to rout the opposition, whether the industry will really go into production and use it, the next few years will tell. Need foR Coal Research To utter "Research" is to use the modern magic word; to conjure up the miraculous—rubber from weeds; radar; magnesium from sea water; yes, even gasoline from coal. Research is a very general term. It means something different to every man. What is the coal industry seeking with its research; or what should it seek? And, specifically, how is it going about the job; and is it taking the best way? There are many who say that Coal has been asleep at the switch, while Oil and Gas have been taking the energy business. In an organized way this is true. Large-scale, privatelyfinanced research is just started in the Pennsylvania anthracite industry, and it is still a dream for bituminous coal. What has been done so far collectively is purely defensive; as, for instance, to improve mechanical devices for burning coal so as to be able to recover markets for house-heating fuel long since abandoned to oil and gas. To appreciate just how seriously bituminous coal has slipped back in the national economy in the past 2 5 years, one has only to recall that, in the last war the Navy required for its operations all the high-grade, low-volatile coal that could be produced, and that anthracite was withdrawn from the middle and northwest markets to keep the eastern seaboard warm. All coal was "rationed" by zones, if not to individuals. Now the Navy, the Armed forces and the Merchant Marine are propelled by oil and gasoline. Gasoline and heating oil are rationed to individuals. Production of all coal in this country in 1918 reached the historic figure of 678,200,-000 tons, and in 1943, after 25 years, it is expected to reach a special wartime total of 660,000,000 tons. Meanwhile, production of crude oil this year may exceed 1 ,500,000,000 bbl., and like that of natural gas, reach four times the amount produced in 1918.

Jan 1, 1944

By B. C. Craft

Louisiana experienced deeper and increased drilling during 1934, resulting in the discovery of five new fields: Bosco, Acadia and St. Landry Parishes; Lake Hermitage, Plaquemines Parish; Roanoke, Jefferson Davis Parish; Gillis, Calcasieu Parish; and Four Isle, Terrebonnc Parish. New sands were discovered at New Iberia, Iberia Parish; Lake Washington, Plaquemines Parish; Sligo, Bossier Parish; and in the Rodessa gas field, Caddo Parish. Other miscellaneous events worthy of mention are the continued leasing of prospective oil and gas lands in North and South Louisiana, extensive geophysical work in the Gulf Coastal area, and increased interest in the development of flank production on piercement type domes, resulting in the acquisition of flank acreage and the leasing of several shallow domes in the Gulf Coast and Interior salt-dome areas. The total oil production for Louisiana during 1934 was 32,529,082 bbl., an increase of 6,929,280 bbl. over 1933. The total daily production at the end of the year from 2421 wells was 102,752 barrels. North Louisiana During the year, 144 oil wells and 68 gas wells were completed in North Louisiana as compared with 111 oil wells and 47 gas wells during 1933. The North Louisiana oil production was 9,274,050 bbl. as compared with 10,023,580 bbl. during 1933, a decline of 749,530 bbl. The normal decline in the old fields and especially in the Zwolle area was partly offset by increased production in the Converse field, Sabine Parish, and by acid treatment of wells in the Zwolle, Converse and Caddo fields. There were no new fields discovered during 1934. During the year R. W. Norton enlarged the boundaries and reserves of the Rodessa gas field. A series of gas-bearing sands, was discovered in J. B. French, No. 1-B, sec. 34, 23 N. 16 W., below the oolitic lime found at 5500 ft. in which formation all previous wells had been completed. The total depth of this well was 5825 ft. Subsequent drilling has resulted in

Jan 1, 1935

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period Apr. 10, 1919, to May 10, 1919. BEAVER, JAMES J., Supt., Mech. Ore Loaders, Tennessee Coal, Iron & R.R. Co., Box 62, Bessemer, Ala. BLACKWELDER, ELIOT Geol. & Prof. of Geol., Univ. of Ill., Urbana, Ill. BRAECKE, GUSTAVE E., -Min. Engr., Mgr., Societe Curas et Soldado, La Carolina, Spain. BRINK, CYRIL GORDON, Reduction Officer, Charge of Reduction Works. Fairview Devonian Montrose Gold Mines, Ltd., P. O. Sheba, Transvaal, So. Africa. COMERFORD, JOSEPH S., Chief Chem. & Met., American Manganese Steel Co., New Castle, Delaware. DROSDOWSKI, N. C. V., Asst. Supt.,, The Spassky Copper Mine, Ltd., Karagandy, Akmolinsk, Oblast, Siberia. DUNGLINSON, GEORGE, JR., Asst. to Gen'l Mgr., Norfolk & Western Railroad, Bluefield, W. Va. FARAGHER, PAUL VANCE, Research Fellow on Light Metals, Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Jan 6, 1919

By E. A. Holbrook

The art of ore dressing is as old as civilization itself. Jason's search for the golden fleece was perhaps only the use of sheepskins for catching gold from gold-bearing sands washed over them. From Hoover's translation of Agricola we gather that in the middle ages ore dressing had advanced through the stage of hand sorting to water concentration by jigging. German methods and apparatus continued in the lead until the closing years of the past century; indeed, it is little more than a generation ago that many ore-dressing plants in this country were designed and operated by German-trained ore-dressing specialists. Meanwhile the development of the ore deposits in this country during the nineteenth century brought forth new inventions and methods. Blake's invention of the rock breaker in 1858 and the coming of the Wilfley table about 1896 are random examples of the improvements caused by our expanding needs. Yet ore dressing remained an art developed and practiced more or less by cut and try methods. The publication of the volumes on Ore Dressing by Dr. Robert H. Richards in 1903 marks the beginning of American ore-dressing practice as a science. Previously we had as guides only a few incomplete books based on foreign practice, or scattered references and articles in our own Transactions. Dr. Richards set down all the developments that had gone before, and outlined the ways for a scientific approach to the subject. He gave us a starting point. Since then ore-dressing practice and technique in this country have set the pace for the world. Coal preparation has been called "ore dressing upside down,'' because in ore dressing we generally save a small percentage of the heavy valuable mineral and discard the lighter gangue, whereas in coal preparation we save the larger quantity of light mineral and discard the smaller percentage of heavy waste. By comparison with ore dressing the history of coal preparation is brief, extending backwards hardly 100 years, for although coal had been dug and used locally for centuries it became an important article of commerce only with the coming of the industrial revolution 150 years ago. In new mines it was to he expected that the thickest and purest seams should be worked first. So long as these lasted there was little thought of coal preparation other than hand picking of the larger impurities and simple sizing to supply the real or fancied need

Jan 1, 1934

By P. Lees, N. Parkinson, K. Hartley, D. M. Donaldson

The reprocessing of advanced fuels such as carbides, oxides, and cermets, containing up to 30pct pu has been studied. Dissolution of uranium carbides in nitric acid produces appreciable quantities of mellitic acid which has undesirable effects in subsequent stages of the process. Mixed oxides containing up to about 40 pct Pu in solid solution with UO, are soluble in nitric acid and a leaching type process in nitric acid for a stainless steel/UO,. PuO, fuel containing 30 pct Pu appears to be feasible. It offers considerable economic advantages THE reprocessing of the U-Cr alloy core of the Dounreay Fast Reactor was described by Buck and others at the Second Geneva conference.' This paper described the flowsheet and plant for processing a relatively simple fuel of good dissolution charac- over total dissolution routes. A new oxidation-sub -limation process is described for metallic fuels containing up to 12 pct Mo. New data is presented on the solvent extraction of uranium and plutonium nitrates into tributyl phosphate -odorless kerosene and of the influence of radiolytically produced acid phosphates on this part of the process. It is concluded that there are no insuperable difficulties which will prevent the satisfactory reprocessing of high burn-up plutonium fuels by a solvent extraction route. teristics and of low-plutonium content after irradiation. However, it has been clear for some time that more satisfactory operation of the reactor can be obtained by the use of a core with better irradiation performance than U-Cr alloy and a U-Mo alloy will be used for the next charge. Recent modifications to the core mean that it is now possible to carry out irradiations of fuel element subassemblies similar to those which might be used in a fast power reactor and trials with plutonium-bearing fuel elements will be made in the relatively near future. These changes have meant that a considerable amount of reprocessing development work has had to be carried out for

Jan 1, 1963

THE following employment items are made available to AIME members on a nonprofit basis by the Engineering Societies Personnel Service, Inc., operating in cooperation with the Four Founder Societies. Local offices of the Personnel Service are at 8 W. 40th St., New York 18; 100 Farnsworth Ave., Detroit; 57 Post St., Son Francisco; 84 E. Randolph St., Chicago 1. Applicants should address all mail to the proper key numbers in care of the New York office and include 6c in stomps for forwarding and returning application. The applicant agrees, if placed in a position by means of the Service, to pay the placement fee listed by the Service. AIME members may secure a weekly bulletin of positions available for $3.50 a quarter, $12 a year. MEN AVAILABLE Sales Engineer, 37, seven years experience Europe and Latin America both in underground work and administrative and sales work; speaks fluent Spanish, Portuguese, French. Desires responsible position preferably export in U. S. M-692. Superintendent, 46, married. Experience covers mining and metallurgy as mining engineer and as general superintendent; metallurgy of leaching, flotation, cyanidation; development, construction, operation. Presently available. Prefer U.S.A. M-693-333-E-1-San Francisco. Mine Manager, Superintendent, Consultant, 61, married. Design and erection of mining and mill plants-examinations. Many years as superintendent, manager, consultant, designer and builder of mining plants, flotation mills, concentration mills. Available one month's notice. Prefer U. S. but foreign acceptable if good climate. M-695-4211-E-9-San Francisco.

Jan 1, 1952

By I. J. Logan, Warren L. Baker

By 1950 or soon thereafter facilities will be available in foreign countries for the production, transportation, and refining of about 4,305,000 bbl per day of crude oil—a volume not far short of current United States output. This is indicated by announced plans for foreign expansion, - some of the work being already under way. The projected potential production is about 1,500,000 bbl per day or 50 pct above the record-setting foreign production of 2,810,000 bbl daily in 1946. The scheduled new foreign facilities are equivalent to almost one third of the present facilities of the United States. Fears that so much additional foreign oil may flood world markets and disrupt the domestic industry of the United States are not justified. The projected foreign expansion apparently has been planned on a sound business basis, with careful consideration of the world's actual need for all the projected additional production. Materially increased world demand for petroleum promises to absorb the increased supplies without ill effect upon the domestic industry. Even by applying conservative estimates of both foreign and domestic demand, it is indicated that world requirements can absorb the projected larger foreign output and still permit continued increase in United States production. World demand would have to increase only 5.7 pct per year in the 1947 to 1950 period to absorb the prospective supply. Such an increase may be conservatively projected, in view of past and current trends. Introduction Recent announcements of plans for expanding petroleum facilities in the Middle East and Venezuela foreshadow an unusually sharp increase in foreign production in the immediate future. Therefore, the next few years will bring far-reaching changes in world petroleum affairs, with foreign petroleum production and other activities assuming much greater importance than formerly. Tabulation of figures on development already under way or planned indicates that in the next several years facilities will be available for producing, transporting and refining twice the prewar production of foreign fields and about 50 pct or nearly 1,500,000 bbl a day above their record-level output of 1946. To say that foreign fields may be producing such an enlarged quantity by 1950 is, of course, a statement of great significance to everyone connected .with the oil industry and especially to those of the American petroleum industry. A production of 1,500,000 bbl daily is equal to the combined yield of the states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Illinois, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi and New Mexico. This means that within the next several years foreign petroleum facilities will undergo a new expansion equivalent to one third of the present facilities of the United States. To think of such an expansion in foreign production is to raise at this meeting the question of what this prospective foreign development means for the United States, the American petroleum industry in general, and the American engineer and technologist in particular. It is only logical to question whether or

Jan 1, 1948

By Warren L. Baker, I. J. Logan

By 1950 or soon thereafter facilities will be available in foreign countries for the production, transportation, and refining of about 4,305,000 bbl per day of crude oil—a volume not far short of current United States output. This is indicated by announced plans for foreign expansion, - some of the work being already under way. The projected potential production is about 1,500,000 bbl per day or 50 pct above the record-setting foreign production of 2,810,000 bbl daily in 1946. The scheduled new foreign facilities are equivalent to almost one third of the present facilities of the United States. Fears that so much additional foreign oil may flood world markets and disrupt the domestic industry of the United States are not justified. The projected foreign expansion apparently has been planned on a sound business basis, with careful consideration of the world's actual need for all the projected additional production. Materially increased world demand for petroleum promises to absorb the increased supplies without ill effect upon the domestic industry. Even by applying conservative estimates of both foreign and domestic demand, it is indicated that world requirements can absorb the projected larger foreign output and still permit continued increase in United States production. World demand would have to increase only 5.7 pct per year in the 1947 to 1950 period to absorb the prospective supply. Such an increase may be conservatively projected, in view of past and current trends. Introduction Recent announcements of plans for expanding petroleum facilities in the Middle East and Venezuela foreshadow an unusually sharp increase in foreign production in the immediate future. Therefore, the next few years will bring far-reaching changes in world petroleum affairs, with foreign petroleum production and other activities assuming much greater importance than formerly. Tabulation of figures on development already under way or planned indicates that in the next several years facilities will be available for producing, transporting and refining twice the prewar production of foreign fields and about 50 pct or nearly 1,500,000 bbl a day above their record-level output of 1946. To say that foreign fields may be producing such an enlarged quantity by 1950 is, of course, a statement of great significance to everyone connected .with the oil industry and especially to those of the American petroleum industry. A production of 1,500,000 bbl daily is equal to the combined yield of the states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Illinois, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi and New Mexico. This means that within the next several years foreign petroleum facilities will undergo a new expansion equivalent to one third of the present facilities of the United States. To think of such an expansion in foreign production is to raise at this meeting the question of what this prospective foreign development means for the United States, the American petroleum industry in general, and the American engineer and technologist in particular. It is only logical to question whether or

Jan 1, 1948

By G. S. Brooks

(New York Meeting, February, 1913.) THE tendency of the oxides of such metals as aluminum, zinc, chromium, and calcium to form compounds at high temperatures with iron oxide is well established by past investigation. Data of this reaction, as developed in laboratory research, have been contributed by Burleigh, Hofman, and Wells, in America, and by many others abroad. A partial bibliography of the subject is appended. From these authorities we learn that the ferric oxide here has the function of an acid, giving in the case of ZnO a zinc ferrite, with a normal composition of ZnOFe2O3. This formation of zinc ferrite particularly affects the success of such processes as leaching or magnetic separation, and thus becomes practically important to the metallurgist. But the meager existing data do not entirely agree; and quantitative results from muffle-practice are conspicuously absent. Furthermore, it being of some general importance to the zinc smelter in both roasting and reduction, the following few notes of operations on a commercial scale are contributed

Jan 5, 1913

New York Meets first Wednesday after first Tuesday of each month. Chairman. PERCY E. BARBOUR, Vice-Chairman. A. D. BEERS, Secretary, 55 Wall St., New York, N. Y. C. A. BOHN, Treasurer. JOHN V. N. DORR, LEWIS W. FRANCIS. Boston Meets first Monday of each winter month. R. L. AGASSIZ, Chairman. JAMES G. CARLETON, Vice-Chairman. E. E. BUGBEE, Secretary-Treasurer, Mass. Inst. of Technology. Cambridge, Mass. W. E. C. EUSTIS, G. A. PACKARD. Columbia Holds four sessions during year. Annual meeting in September or October. W. H. LINNEY, Chairman. OSCAR LACHMUND, Vice-Chairman. LYNDON K. ARMSTRONG, Secretary-Treasurer, P. O. Drawer 2154, Spokane, Wash. STANLY A. EASTON, S. SHEDD. Puget Sound Meets second Saturday of each month SIMON H. ASH, Chairman. I. F. LAUCKS, Vice-Chairman. CHARLES SIMENSTAD, Secretary-Treasurer, 425 Lyon Bldg., Seattle, Wash. GLENVILLE A. COLLINS, JOHN N. POTT

Jan 6, 1917

New York Meets first Wednesday after first Tuesday of each month. Chairman. PERCY E. BARBOUR, Vice-Chairman. A. D. BEERS, Secretary, 55 Wall St., New York, N. Y. C. A. BOHN,.Treasurer. JOHN V. N. DORR, LEWIS W. FRANCIS. Boston Meets first Monday of each winter month. W.. E. C. EUSTIS. Chairman. R. L. AGASSIZ. Vice-Chairman. E. E. BUGBEE, Secretary-Treasurer, Mass. Inst. of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. ALBERT SAUVEUR, H. L. SMYTH. Columbia Holds four sessions during year. Annual meeting n September or October. W. H. LINNEY, Chairman. OSCAR LACHMUND, Vice-Chairman. LYNDON K. ARMSTRONG, Secretary-Treasurer, P. O. Drawer 2154, Spokane, Wash. STANLY A. EASTON. S. SHEDD. Puget Sound Meets second Saturday of each month SIMON H. ASH, Chairman. I. F. LAUCKS, Vice-Chairman. CHARLES SIMENSTAD, Secretary-Treasurer, 425 Lyon Bldg., Seattle, Wash. GLENVILLE A. COLLINS, JOHN N. POTT

Jan 5, 1917

By D. G. Westlake

Alloys of poly crystalline Nb-H have been tensile tested at 77" and 120°K after slow-cooling and after quenching from room temperature. A rationale has been developed to explain the effect of cooling rate on ductility in terms of microstructure. The inferior ductility of the slow-cooled alloys in this temperature range can be attributed to the precipitation of coarse hydride particles that fracture in the early stages of plastic deformation. Quenching Produced much smaller hydride particles and a decreased tendency for initia-tion and popagation of cracks. Prismatic dislocation loops, punched into the matrix of quenched alloys, eliminate the yield point and may Play some role in the low temperature ductility of the quenched alloys. The difference in ductility between quenched and slow-cooled V-H alloys was even greater than that observed in the N b-H alloys. It is well known that the ductility of Nb-H and V-H alloys decreases with increasing hydrogen concentra-tion and with decreasing temperature.1-l1 The follow-ing are some of the numerous mechanisms that have been adopted in attempts to explain these observations: 1) hydrogen-dislocation interarction,4'6 2) lowering of the crack surface energy by adsorbed hydrogen,9'10 3) localized lowering of the niobium bond strength,9 and 4) exertion of pressure inside voids by molecular hydrogen.6 A recent study1' indicates that, in some way, the embrittlement is related to the precipitation of a hydrogen-rich phase, because embrittlement and hydrogen solubility have the same temperature dependence. Most of the investigators observed that at very low temperatures there was a return of the ductility. Thus, hydrogenated niobium and vanadium may be said to exhibit a low temperature ductility minimum."1'8'9 It has been reasoned by most observers that diffusion is required for the embrittlement mechanism to be operative, and that as hydrogen becomes immobile at very low temperatures, the ductility increases. This investigation of the mechanical behavior of Nb-H al-loys under various conditions is an attempt to gain a better understanding of the low temperature ductility minimum. EXPERIMENTAL Tensile specimens, with gage length dimensions 20 by 3 mm, were machined from sheet stock" and both faces were ground on wet 600 grit Sic paper to obtain a final thickness of 0.5 mm. Annealing as described earlier12 resulted in average grain diameters of 0.3 mm. The recrystallized niobium tensile specimens were electropolished in 90 parts H2S04, 10 parts HF (48.9 pct) by volume, at 287°K and 30 v. Hydrogen, which may have been present in the starting material and/or added during specimen preparation, was removed by annealing at 1073°K in a dynamic vacuum of 2 X 10-6 torr. Hydrogenated specimens (1.15 at. pct H) were prepared by reaction with a known quantity of pure hydrogen (obtained by thermal decomposition of UH3) at 1073oK, followed by cooling at the rate of 100" per hr. These were vacuum encapsulated, homogenized at 573°K for 3 to 5 hr, and furnace-cooled. Tensile tests were conducted on an Instron machine at a strain rate of 4 x l0-5 per sec. The gripping device was such that the specimen was positioned below the crosshead. Thus, subambient test temperatures could be obtained by immersion of the device in a cooling bath of either liquid nitrogen or Freon-12. The temperature of the Freon-12 was controlled within ± 0.1°K of the desired temperature by automatically monitoring the flow of liquid nitrogen through a copper coil in the bath. Slow-cooling to 77°K was accomplished as follows. The testing device was surrounded by a rubber jacket, open at the top and with small holes in the bottom. Liquid nitrogen, brought up to the bottom of the jacket, entered the holes and vaporized quickly. The temperature was monitored at the specimen with a copper-constantan thermocouple, and a constant cooling rate of 2 deg per min was easily achieved by controlling the level of the liquid nitrogen outside the jacket. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Low Temperature Ductility Minimum. Resistometric studies of both Nb-H12 and V-H13 indicated that at tem-peratures less than 150°K, virtually all of the hydrogen

Jan 1, 1970

By David R. Mitchell, R. M. Fleming

MANY trends were evident in the coal industry during 1951. Some were favorable for the industry; others were not. Probably those having the most far-reaching consequences are those affecting coal's markets. The rapid dieselization of many railroads and the continued trend toward oil and natural gas for home heating has caused serious dislocations in various mining districts. Mines have been forced to close down or to work on a reduced time basis. Conversely the increased activity in the metallurgical industries has increased the demand for coking and special purpose coals, and the growing production of electric energy has increased the demand in certain areas for steam coals. The increased demand for metallurgical coal and for steam raising by the large utilities is more than equal tonnage-wise to the loss of coal to railroad dieselization and conversions to oil and gas in the domestic market. Since much of the expansion is at captive mines of large corporations, many commercial operators supplying railroad and domestic users have had their markets curtailed without any compensating demand from other sources. Feverish activity was in evidence in many areas by commercial operators attempting to find new markets. The Norfolk and Western Railway is the, only major American railroad committed to the burning of coal. It has an exceptionally good cost record. During 1951, fifteen additional modern coal-burning steam switching locomotives were authorized for construction in the company's Roanoke shops at a cost of about $1,450,000. When the new order is completed the road will own a total of sixty locomotives of the modern-switcher type, including thirty acquired by purchase last year. The Norfolk and Western today is the only American railroad building its own motive power. All of these locomotives burn coal. Production Coal production in the year 1951 will approximate 570 million tons of anthracite, bituminous coal, and lignite. Of this, approximately 7 pet is anthracite. Total production is approximately 30 million tons more than in 1950 and reflects the increase in general industrial activity. Exports are expected to be close to 50 million tons. The industrial stockpile is close to 75 million tons, the highest it has been since 1943. With the exception of the usual local stoppages the year 1951 was unmarked by labor disputes. It was a year of good labor-management relations with a negotiated wage increase unmarred by a work stoppage. This may be the beginning. of an era of sensible negotiations to find agreeable settlements of disputes without the usual protracted bickering and industry-wide strike. The United Mine Workers of America has condemned wildcat strikes, stating that in nearly every, instance proper grievance procedures have not been instituted. Government defense organizations, perhaps profiting by their experiences during World War II, are pursuing a more enlightened program with regard to the fuel requirements of the nation. Many prominent officials have stated that wherever possible coal should be considered the primary source of fuel in all defense expansion. With the increased consumption of steel by defense projects, approval of transportation facilities for liquid and gaseous fuels have been refused where these fuels would enter a coal producing area. Liquid and gaseous fuel producers also have failed to provide satisfactory evidence that they have sufficient reserves and are capable of supplying their product in adequate amounts for the periods of time required. Realization has at last become prevalent that the hydro-electric power installations in several areas are insufficient to handle increased demands.' Steam generating plants are being constructed in these areas and equipped to burn coal. Most notable of these, is the TWA area whose supplemental steam power plants are expected to consume 10 million tons of coal per year when completed. The Pacific Northwest is another area which is expected to follow the same pattern. Nearly all new steam-power generating plants are being equipped to burn coal either as a primary fuel or as an emergency measure. Metallurgical Coal The steel and other metallurgical industries are expanding rapidly to meet increased industrial demands and defense orders. Since these industries are dependent on coke, coke has had a year of high production and can be expected to break all existing records when steel-plant expansions are completed. Most notable of the expansion projects is that of the Delaware River area where the iron ore will be received by ship from Canada and South America. U. S. Steel is only one of several steel corporations that are planning on putting integrated steel producing units in this area. The Defense Solids Fuels Administration announced in December that through. November 30, 1951. 29 projects in eight states, with a total cost of

Jan 1, 1952

By Oscar M. Wicken

The mineral magnesite (MgCO3) if pure would consist of 47.7 pct MgO and 52.3 pct CO2. It is one of the calcite group of rhombohedral carbonates which includes calcite (CaCO3), siderite (FeCO3), rhodocrosite (MnCO3), and smithsonite (ZnCO3) among others. The members of this group enter into a wide range of substitutional solid solutions, whose range is still imperfectly known.* MgCO3 and FeCO3 appear to form a complete series of which breunnerite (ferroan magnesite) is a well known variety. Because of the considerable difference in size of the Ca and Mg ions, there is only a limited range in substitution in the MgCO3-CaCO3 series. (Dolomite, not strictly a member of the calcite group, may be regarded as an ordered structure developed when Ca: Mg is approximately 1:1.) The practical consequence of these relationships is that the lime carbonates (calcite and dolomite) are commonly present in magnesite deposits chiefly as mechanical mixtures. Magnesite may be either crystalline or "amorphous" (cryptocrystalline). The crystalline form has a hardness of 3.5 to 4.0. The color may range from white to black through shades of yellow, blue, red or gray. It is rarely found pure but generally contains variable amounts of iron, lime, and silicate minerals. Color cannot be used as an index of purity except under specific local conditions in a single quarry. In a given quarry an experienced man may be able roughly to grade magnesite by intuitively assessing such features as crystallinity and color. Crystalline magnesite occurs in larger deposits, but the cryptocrystalline variety is more common. The latter is fine-grained and compact and shows no cleavage; often it is descriptively called "bone magnesite." The fracture is usually conchoidal, and hardness is 3.5 to 5.0. It is normally white, but sometimes it is light yellow to orange or buff because of included impurities. In addition to lime and iron, which may be present in small amounts, silica may be present as inclusions of serpentine, quartz, chalcedony, or other minerals. In general, commercial deposits of "amorphous" magnesite have lesser amounts of accessory minerals than does crystalline magnesite. The specific gravity of "amorphous" magnesite is 2.90 to 3.0. Pure, crystalline magnesite has a specific gravity of 3.02, but iron carbonate, commonly present, raises the specific gravity to somewhat higher values. Magnesite dissociates, when sufficiently heated, into magnesia (MgO) and carbon dioxide. Either simultaneously or upon further heating the magnesia develops a crystalline structure identical with that of the natural mineral, periclase, which occurs sparingly in nature but not normally in workable deposits. Brucite is another magnesium mineral capable of being directly reduced to magnesia by heat alone. Brucite (Mg(OH)2) has been mined for the production of various grades of magnesia. It theoretically contains 69.1 pct MgO and 30.9 pct H2O. It may be white, but is generally blue or green with a gray cast. It has a translucent appearance. The mineral is soft (hardness, 2.5), and has a specific gravity of about 2.4. Nomenclature of Products The word "magnesite" literally refers to the natural mineral, but common usage has applied it plus a prefatory word to two other

Jan 1, 1960

By R. Maddin, A. Lawley

Single crystal Mo-Re alloys (99.99+ purity), grown by electron bombardment floating zone heating, were deformed in tension at temperatures from -196° to +200°C. At -196oC, Mo-6 pet Re and Mo-20 pct Re alloys deform by slip on systems of the type (101) [1ll]. Above-78oC, the operative slip system is of the type (112) [111], (101) [1ll], or (211) [1ll], depending upon orientation. Mo-39 pct Re alloys deform by twinning and slip at all test temperatures with a (112) [111] type twinning system. Critical resolved shear stress for slip and twinning is calculated as a function of composition and temperature, and the mechanical properties compared with those of less Pure polycrystalline alloys. HEXAGONAL close-packed rhenium, c/a = 1.615, is highly soluble in molybdenum. The bee molybdenum-rich solid solution extends to approximately 42 at. pet Re* at 2500°C,' Fig. 1. Recent work on polycrystalline alloys has shown conclusively that the addition of rhenium to molybdenum improves both the fabricability and the low-temperature ductility.2"5 Similar behavior is observed for W-Re and Cr-Re alloys.5 Initially, Geach and Hughes2 found that the Mo-30 pct Re alloy could be cold rolled to approximately 90 pct reduction before the onset of cracking. The remarkable effect of the rhenium was later confirmed by Jaffee et al. 3-5 with an optimum condition of maximum strength combined with maximum ductility at the Mo-35 pet composition. At higher rhenium contents, the ductility was severely impaired due apparently to the presence of brittle tetragonal s phase, Fig. 1. In the Mo-35 pet Re alloy, at least 110 ppm (parts per million) oxygen could be tolerated before cold workability was reduced. By comparison, the corresponding tolerance figure in unalloyed molybdenum is ~ 10 ppm. The effect of rhenium was considered in terms of: 1) a reduction in oxygen solubility in the lattice; 2) a redistribution of intergranular oxide from grain boundary films to isolated spheres; and 3) the promotion of twinning as a further mode of plastic deformation. Paradoxically, twinning is often associated with brittle fracture in iron and the silicon irons.6'7 Work to date has been restricted to are-melted and powder metallurgy polycrystalline material of ~ 99.9 pet purity. The present investigation was initiated for the purpose of determining the mode and crystallography of plastic deformation of a series of bee Mo-Re alloy single crystals over a wide temperature range from -196o to +200°C. Using high-purity zone-melted material (~ 99.99 + pet purity), the specific role of rhenium in the molybdenum lattice may be understood more fully since effects due to grain boundaries and oxide redistribution will be absent. At the same time, the study provides a comparison of single and polycrystalline deformation behavior. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES A) Preparation and Purity of Single Crystals. Alloys in the form of either are-cast and swaged or sintered and ground bar, 0.120 in. diam, were obtained from the Chase Brass and Copper Co. Alloy single crystals ~ 8-in. long were grown from the

Jan 1, 1962

By Francis A. Thomson

IN reviewing mineral industry education a year ago, occasion was taken to congratulate the Institute in general and to felicitate the Education Di- vision in particular on "the most gratifying growth which is taking place in Institute consciousness in regard to its responsibility for the recruitment and adequate training of student personnel and for the successful bridging of the difficult gap between graduation and achievement of professional status." Continuation of this growth of interest throughout 1939 is a recognition of the validity of the splendid statement of George Otis Smith that the mining students of today are the ore reserve of the Institute for the future. In this connection one recalls the equally apt expression of another distinguished geologist, George M. Fowler, who, speaking of exploration for ore deposits, says, "The place to look for elephants is where elephants have been found."

Jan 1, 1940

By M. C. LYNN

RECENT completion of a $40,000 lubricating oil plant will make it possible for students in the School of Petroleum Engineering at the University of Oklahoma to carry out on a large scale the entire process of refining crude oil, from the time it is received in tank cars and pumped through the 1/4-mile University pipe line to storage tanks on the campus until the various products appear in finished form. This plant is part of a $100,000 expansion program which this school has been carrying out during the past year. Two years ago the Oklahoma State Legislature appropriated $50,000 for the School to use in improving its laboratory facilities. A few months later a $30,000 PWA grant was ob-

Jan 1, 1937

By W. C. Meyer

In an effort to conserve and extend oil resources, the use of powdered coal-in-oil mixtures (COM) as an alternate fuel in oil-fired boilers is receiving increasing attention. For the approach to be successful, some degree of stability of the suspension against settling is needed. The variety of means available to achieve stability of this nonaqueous slurry is reviewed along with some of the physical and chemical concepts which underlie each method.

Jan 1, 1983