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By Kandipati Sreenivasarao

A promising method for removing heavy metal ions from dilute effluents is ion- or precipitate- flotation, in which a suitable collector is added to form hydrophobic metal-collector complexes or compounds that can be collected as foams. We have successfully removed Cu(II), Cd(II), and Pb(ll) from dilute solutions using sodium dodecylsulfate and ethanol as collector and frother respectively. However the process would not be economically viable unless the collector could be recycled, and the heavy metals recovered in a concentrated, preferably marketable, form from the foams. We investigated four different methods to decompose heavy metal-dodecylsulfate complexes, namely precipitation of hydroxides, precipitation of sulfides, chemical stripping, and electrolysis. We compare the performance of these methods. In each case the observed behavior is related to known thermodynamic data, and potential applications are discussed.

Jan 1, 1995

By W. Smith

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) is using laboratory and computer-based techniques to investigate the post- failure behavior of yielding pillars and pillar reinforcement techniques to control entry deformation. Poorly dimensioned yield pillars, can cause adverse ground conditions. Laboratory studies to evaluate various reinforcement techniques for controlling yield pillar deformation were conducted. A cracking and crushing model is used to evaluate potential tensile and compressive failure planes within pillars of various widths to assess the degree of yielding and stress redistribution. The use of an elasto-plastic model to evaluate the effect of various reinforcement on yield pillars is also discussed. These procedures effectively account for the residual pillar strength, important in yield pillar design.

Jan 1, 1995

By G. Whitney, J. Steiner

Introduction The Summitville Mine located in southwestern Colorado is an example of the potential impact that natural weathering and mining activities can have on environmental quality. Acid rock drainage and metals leaching from active and historic mine districts are a major environmental problem facing the mining industry today. Sulfide ore exposed naturally or during mining operations has the potential to produce leachates that contain high concentrations of dissolved metals. These leachates can affect the quality of plant and animal health in surface water used for agriculture, recreation and human consumption. Pintail Systems has developed biological processes for detoxification of cyanide in heap-leached spent ore and process solutions. During application of spent ore cyanide bio-detox processes we have also observed a substantial reduction in many of the leachable metals in biotreatment solutions. These field observations of soluble metal reduction led us to propose that metal bio-mineralization should be a secondary treatment goal of spent ore detox in Focused Feasibility Studies (FFS) for the Summitville Mine. In the FFS (described in a companion paper) for Summitville, spent ore from the heap leach pile (HLP) was loaded into PVC test columns (six inch X ten foot) and was leached with bacteria/nutrient solutions. Two treatment designs were studied: a standard percolation leach (aerobic) and a saturated leach design where the ore was saturated with the heap leach solution to which bacteria and nutrients were applied in a continuous biotreat leach. The bacteria for all column treatment tests were isolated from the spent ore at depth through the Heap Leach Pile (HLP) in the saturated and unsaturated zones. Bacteria isolated from the heap material were tested for cyanide oxidation capacity and were submitted to a bioaugmentation program to improve reaction kinetics and metals tolerance. The final treatment population consisted of several distinct species including aerobic heterotrophs, facultative anaerobes and sulfate-reducing bacteria. The remineralization of soluble metals was observed through a decrease in copper in column leachate solutions and the formation of observable mineral products on ore surfaces in the columns. Several of the tests were run in clear PVC columns to facilitate observation of mineral formation. The column ore contents were photographed before, during and after the biotreatment process which ranged from 10 to 20 days for each test column. Ores were collected from each column after the treatment was complete and were submitted for SEM and TEM study at two laboratories - the USGS SEM Laboratory in Denver, Colorado and the City College of New York SEM laboratory. Treatment Process Description Numerous species of bacteria, fungi and yeasts are capable of accumulating many times their weight in soluble metals. Both living and dead biomass are effective in removing soluble metals from waste streams containing gold, silver, chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and others. Soluble metals may also be immobilized in soils by natural or engineered biomineralization reactions. Several commercial processes using biological reactions are being applied on an industrial scale for metal remediation. Bacteria found in natural and extreme environments have developed a wide variety of metabolic functions to adapt to these environments. These natural microbial functions contribute to global mineral cycling that continuously forms, transforms and degrades minerals and metals in the environment. Biomineralization is described as a surface process associated with microorganism cell walls where the remineralization occurs. The biogeochemical activities initiated by microorganisms in ores, soils, surface and groundwater environments can dominate the formation and transformation of those mineral environments.

Jan 1, 1995

Conventional wisdom in the mineral processing industry leads one to believe that pressure oxidation of refractory carbonaceous (preg-robbing) ores is not a practical approach to process development. Initial acid pressure oxidation testing on carbonaceous sulfide ores at the Twin Creeks Mine supported this conventional wisdom. After testing other refractory process options, including air and oxygen enriched roasting, Santa Fe Pacific Gold decided to take a second look at pressure oxidation, using conditions outside the normal range of conventional practice. A combination of very fine grinding and high operating temperature and pressure resulted in significant increases in gold extraction. This paper details the effect of operating parameters developed for Twin Creeks on gold recovery, sulfur oxidation, carbon oxidation/passivation and preg-robb through the laboratory and pilot plant investigations.

Jan 1, 1995

By Antonieta Middea, Rupen Adamian, Fernando F. Lins

This work presents the results obtained with aggregation of fine talc (-19 m), a naturally hydrophobic mineral, in the presence of KC1 solutions. The classical DLVO theory describes well the aggregation of talc in dilute KC1 solutions. Beyond 1 M KCI we have found indications that a non-DLVO interparticles force is operative, say an hydration (repulsive) force. This structural force could be responsible for the unexpected re-dispersion of talc suspension. However, no repulsive force (depression) has been observed in salt flotation of talc at higher ionic strength, up to 3 MKCI.

Jan 1, 1995

Many USBM research and information products are available through the systems or formats listed below: Mines FaxBack: Return fax service. 1. Use the touch-tone handset attached to your fax machine's telephone jack. (ISDN [digital] telephones cannot be used with fax machines.) 2. Dial 202/219-3644 3. Listen to the menu options and punch in the number of your selection, using the touch-tone telephone 4. After completing your selection, press the start button on your fax machine. Mines Data: Computer bulletin board. Log on via modem through 202/501-0373, or call 202/501-0406 for technical assistance. CD-ROM: This USBM disk is updated quarterly and sold by GPO's Superintendent of Documents. For information on the latest product, please contact Rodger Wedgeworth, 202/501-9557. Internet/World Wide Web: Text and graphics. Access via PC-based browsing software such as Netscape or Mosaic. Universal Resource Locator (URL) is: http:/www.usbm.gav Internet/Gopher Server: Text and tables only. Using Gopher client software, access via port 70 as follows: gopher.usbm.gav Internet System Administrator: webmaster®usbm.gov (or contact your local System Administrator).

Jan 1, 1995

By Raja V. Rarnani, Robert L. Frantz

"Scientific, engineering, and biomedical research teams synergystically developed major topical research areas in the Respirable Dust Center. Descriptions of their interactions and resulting accomplishments demonstrate how cooperative research within and among these study groups benefits the overall respirable dust research and practical application needs of the mineral industries.The development of a state-of-the-art small animal inhalation exposure facility suitable for studies of fresh and aged coal mine dust, a major goal of this research group, will contribute toward the GTCRD goal of advancing the understanding of causative mechanisms for the occupation-related lung impairments and the airway diseases of mine and mill workers. Such understanding includes improved definition of the role of various aspects of the lung environment (e.g., surfactant and the mucociliary system) in the disposition and toxicity of respirable dust, comprehensive characterization of the role of the pulmonary alveolar macrophage (PAM) and its secretory products on the development of dust-related lung disorders, and an expanded search for methods to reduce the toxicity of respirable dust both before and after it enters the lung. The National Academy of Sciences has recommended, in Measurement and Control of Respirable Dust in Mines, that respirable dust research should include study of the behavioral and constitutional factors affecting individual susceptibility to workers' pneumoconiosis occupational disease and the development of methods for detecting the potential onset of pneumoconiosis earlier and more conclusively than can be done using X-ray methods. These recommendations have guided the research group in its goals of establishing and disseminating a scientific protocol for standardizing the inhalation testing for all research objectives within the Generic Center which involve small animal exposures and implementing the infrastructure necessary to make lung tissues obtained during inhalation studies available to all researchers within the Generic Center."

Jan 1, 1995

Kambalda Nickel Mines (KNM) currently have eight operating underground mines, three on care and maintenance and other orebodies at various stages of development. Each operation differs greatly in scale, ore grade, milling characteristics and cost structure. The optimum number of mines operating at any one time and their level of production, within the constraints of mill blending requirements and overall mill capacity, is the key to maximising profit in a climate of fluctuating nickel price. Cost models are developed for each mining operation which relate ore tonnes mined to total cost per pound of nickel produced from that mine. Aggregating the mine cost models provides a composite cost model for the entire operation. The cost models provide the operating levels necessary for each of the mines and hence Kambalda as a whole, to operate at the lowest cost per pound of nickel produced. However, lowest operating cost does not necessarily lead to maximum profit. The level of nickel price above operating cost can dictate maximum profit positions which are contrary to the lowest cost position. In addition, the decision to temporarily shutdown mines or reopen mines in response to nickel price movements comes at a cost. In considering the optimum operating position, the price of production capacity flexibility needs to be taken into account. This paper describes the process used to assess all these factors in arriving at the optimum operating position for Kambalda Nickel Mines for varying nickel prices. The same methodology can be used by corporate management in managing multiple mine sites as well as mine management managing multiple orebodies or stoping blocks for maximum profit.

Jan 1, 1995

By Levent Ozdemir

An extensive study involving laboratory testing and computer modeling has been performed to assess the technical and economic feasibility of utilizing the recently developed minidisc cutters on roadheaders for hard rock mining. The results show that heavy duty roadheaders fitted with minidiscs can excavate hard rock formations at acceptable production rates and cutter costs. This paper presents and discusses the results of this study together with the ongoing developmental efforts of this technology, which include laboratory testing of a roadheader cutting drum with minidiscs and full scale field testing of a machine in hard rock

Jan 1, 1995

By I. Iwasaki, K. A. Smith, X. Cheng

The reaction mechanism for the cathodic decomposition of pyrrhotite in deoxygenated solutions at natural, near neutral pH levels was studied using potential and cyclic voltammetric measurements. Reaction products on the pyrrhotite surfaces were examined by Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and by analyzing the voltammograms for the electron balance of the reactions. Surface properties of the pyrrhotite/solution interface were characterized using an ac impedance technique. The parameters of an equivalent circuit were determined by the nonlinear least-squares fit (NLLSF) technique. The effect of cathodic polarization on floatability was investigated by performing microflotation tests. Possible implications to the flotation separation of chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite ores are discussed.

Jan 1, 1995

By Gordon B. J. Fader

A regional assessment of the aggregate potential of the Scotian Shelf is presently being funded through a Canada-Nova Scotia Cooperation Agreement on Mineral Development. This assessment includes testing of seabed materials for their suitability in a variety of concrete, asphalt and other specialized applications. The glacial and postglacial Holocene history of the Scotian Shelf has been favourable for the formation of large deposits of sand and gravel that have potential for use as marine aggregate resources. Large banks and inner shelf areas of the seabed consist of basal transgressive sand and gravel of the Sable Island Sand and Gravel Formation. These sediments accumulated during the late Wisconsinan postglacial transgression, through sorting of glacial materials that were originally deposited beneath marine terminating glaciers. Some sandy deposits occur as low-stand deltas on the inner shelf at 70 m water depth and were formed during the maxi- mum low sea level stand, in early postglacial time, at approximately 12 000 yBP. Modern sediment transport processes have contributed to the formation of areas of large sand bedforms, such as the Cape Split sand wave field and other isolated sand waves of the inner Bay of Fundy, and Eastern Shoal on Banquereau. Sandy sediments, found in many transverse channels in the nearshore, offer a potential for placer gold where proximal to adjacent onshore epithermal gold deposits. Lithothamnion covered gravel occurs as a thin lag overlying glacial sediments in much of the nearshore. Relict gravel beach ridges have been eroded and redistributed through sub-littoral processes after passage of the transgressing beach front. Multibeam bathymetry, sidescan sonograms and high-resolution seismic reflection profiles are the main survey tools. Ground truth consists of large volume seabed samples, vibrocores and photographs. A preliminary assessment of the aggregate potential indicates that very large volumes of suitable aggregate lie in the offshore of southeast Canada.

Jan 1, 1995

By W. J. Wuest

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) has recently developed a rock mass classification system for evaluating the structural competency of bedded roof strata; the Coal Mine Roof Rating, or CMRR. When compiled with the companion Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet, which is simple to learn and use, CMRR data are a useful tool with applications to longwall gate road pillar design, safety hazard mapping, and artificial roof support analysis. This paper demonstrates these applications under actual conditions found in current U.S. mining operations.

Jan 1, 1995

By David Harrison, Edward J. Walter, Meitra Ferek

Agreat tool in the prevention of blasting complaints and subsequent damage claims. In today’s highly competitive industry, we are always looking for ways to become more cost effective. This article investigates the importance of pre-blast surveys-not just for regulatory compliance, but as an overall long term cost cutting and public relations tool.

Jan 1, 1995

Whether you are an employee, contractor or consultant working in the mineral industry, there are pressures to deliver the best possible performance. Technical professionals are usually driven by an internal desire to perform to a high standard because of personal pride in their profession, but there are an increasing number of external requirements to demonstrate that the actions taken were based upon reasonable grounds and that the work conformed to current best practice. People expect these best practice procedures to be followed and governments are now requiring those tendering for contracts to be registered in some way and to be participants in quality assurance schemes. One is not immune to these pressures just because you are working in a less legislatively sophisticated developing country in the circum-Pacific rim (pacrim) region.   Among the external pressures are the general ethical requirements of the professional body to which the person usually belongs, e.g. The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM), which are further elaborated upon in various Codes and Guidelines on specific matters, e.g. JORC (ore reserves reports) and VALMIN (assessment and valuation reports). These are outlined and discussed. Also, AusIMM's Chartered Practicing Status (CPS) Proposal is outlined in the context of other Pacrim countries approach to registering of technical professionals, which is a way of ensuring that minimum standards of qualifications, experience, competence and repute are demonstrable to ones employer (or client), peers and the wider community, including government.   Today, in the external working scene, there are many laws (particularly those applicable to the corporate and environmental spheres), with which contractors/consultants and even employees must fully comply, or else face criminal sanctions involving huge fines and imprisonment. These, too, are outlined and discussed. One must be able to mount a due diligence defence to avoid or mitigate these consequences.   Personal liability in the context of the day-to-day performance of one's duties has thus become a major concern to the technical professional and the ways in which it can be ameliorated, or insured against, are described. However, for some mineral industry practitioners, the problem is exacerbated because. of their general ignorance of the extent of their personal liability exposure. This paper intends to address this ignorance and to heighten general awareness of personal liability issues, as well as proposing some simple ways to limit this liability.

Jan 1, 1995

By T. A. Gray

There are several potential large-volume uses for coal ash in mining-related applications that could be environmentally and economically beneficial to mining companies. Actual usage, however, may be constrained by regulations or by perceptions of coal ash and the potential uses. To identify currently allowed uses and to assess constraints to coal ash use in the eastern coal fields, questionnaires were sent to state coal mining agencies to determine their policies on coal ash utilization and to mining companies to solicit their viewpoints on coal ash utilization. Identifying and understanding the constraints will allow for the development of a coordinated and consistent approach to remove or reduce these constraints and possibly allow for increased utilization of coal ash by the mining industry. This paper summarizes the findings of our investigation.

Jan 1, 1995

In this U.S. Bureau of Mines report, in situ vat leach mineral recovery system concepts are described and cost compared with conventional mining and pad and autoclave leach processing systems. In the proposed systems, leachable ores are enclosed in place in reagent-impermeable in situ vat constructions. The ores are then rubbled and flood leached or flood oxidized and leached. The in situ vats are called stope leach or stope autoclave vessels. The report also proposes ore body-adjacent in situ vat constructions containing rechargeable processing stopes. A series of ore body-specific, innovative, and conventional mineral recovery systems case study designs are described and prefeasibility level costed. Based on a comparison of these prefeasibility level cost estimates, the proposed systems are determined to be economically competitive with conventional min¬eral recovery systems. The in situ vat leach mineral recovery systems concepts for leachable and refractory ores are developed around the drill-split narrow-vein and longwall mining methods described in part 1 of this Information Circular series.

Jan 1, 1995

By Akihiro Higashide, Roy H. Patten

The DOT Tunneling method combines two conventional earth pressure balance shield machines in an overlapping cylindrical arrangement. The method allows two tunnels to be driven simultaneously with mini¬mum cross sectional area. Two full size trials, one configured horizontally and one vertically stacked, were successfully completed employing the DOT method. The method was then utilized for the new transportation system. The goggle-shaped DOT machine, 9.36 m high by 15.86 m wide, is the largest earth pressure balance shield machine in the world. This paper includes a general description of the DOT tunneling method as well as a history of its development.

Jan 1, 1995

By Derek V. Ellis

Sediment Quality Guidelines can provide target values that should not be exceeded when seabed deposits are disturbed for mining, waste discharge or other purposes. Three sets of Guidelines have appeared in 1994 and 1995: US NOAA (updated from 1991), Environment Canada (EnvCan) and Equilibrium Partitioning (EqP) developed in the UK from US Water Quality Criteria. The US NOAA and EnvCan Guidelines have been developed by comparing many experimental and site data sets, and have concluded that levels below which effects rarely occur, or above which probably will occur, are useful guidelines. US NOAA uses the terms ERL and ERM for these two levels, and EnvCan TEL and PEL. The EqP concept is that a value can be calculated below which trace metals present cannot raise the concentration in the interstitial water. There are some problems in comparing units, but the comparison shows in general that the EnvCan levels are less than, and down to half of, the US NOAA levels. EqP levels vary but are generally fairly close to US NOAA ERL levels, with one major exception. The EqP level for mercury is far lower than either US NOAAor EnvCan levels, at 0.008 mg kg-1 compared to 0.15 (ERL) and 0.13 (TEL) mg kg-1 respectively. Comments will be solicited on how such differing Guidelines should be used site-specifically for environmental management at mining operations, (1) in the regions for where they were developed, and (2) elsewhere.

Jan 1, 1995

By Z. M. Zheng

Cyclic voltammetry, potential step, and ac impedance techniques were applied to study the electrochemical reaction of arsenopyrite in chloride solutions. The relationship between anodic current density and time in potential step measurements indicates that the oxidation of arsenopyrite is irreversible. The results of the constant potential coulometry show that the stoichiometric factor of the total electron involved in the overall reaction is 14. It is proposed that the dissolution of arsenopyrite is retarded by coverage of sulfur produced in the reaction as an intermediate product. The measured results of ac impedance strongly support the proposition. The proposed reaction mechanism also explains satisfactorily the charging current density and Tafel slopes measured in potential step measurements.

Jan 1, 1995

By R. S. Kasper

This paper reviews the procedure used to quantify the conveyor frictional resistance on a 3.9 km (2.4 mile) long overland conveyor belt. Field torque measurements of the three drives were used to help fine tune a computer simulation of the conveyor. This enabled the prediction of the effect on various conveyor components that cold temperatures will have on increasing the throughput tonnage.

Jan 1, 1995