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By J. C. Smock

The magnetic iron ores of New Jersey are found in the northern part of the State, in the Highland Mountain range, which runs from the New York line on the northeast, to the Delaware River, near Easton, at the southwest. The same range continues across Orange County to the Hudson River, and towards the southwest it is known in Pennsylvania as the South Mountain. It is more properly an elevated table-land, quite deeply furrowed by several narrow, longitudinal valleys, and shorter cross-valleys or gaps. The ridges or lines of elevation, as well as the lower valleys, conform in their general direction very closely to the general trend of the whole belt or table-land, that is, from northeast to southwest. This also agrees with the prevailing strike of the rocks. This great uniformity in the altitudes of the hills and ridges, and the direction of the lines of depression corresponding to the strike of the strata, point to an original table-land, which, through the long action of denuding agents, has been quite deeply eroded, giving rise to the present surface configuration, so that some of the former and uniform features have been partially obliterated. The very few cross-valleys or depressions are much more irregular in their course, and serve as outlets through which the drainage is carried either into the Kittatinny Valley on the northwest, or to the broad, red shale and sandstone plane bounding the highlands on the southeast. The area of this highland

By David Smith

Construction of a new transportation link frequently requires crossing under an existing highway or railroad. Although traffic diversions may permit a cut and cover structure to be built, ‘zero impact’ tunnel solutions are becoming increasingly popular. The vertical clearance between the new tunnel structure and the existing highway or tracks may be very low; sometimes less than two meters. This leaves little room for error since any ground loss can rapidly translate into surface settlement. Problems can be avoided by maintaining the stability of the tunnel face and by minimizing ground movement around the tunnel lining. This paper examines construction methods that have been used to construct short tunnels with shallow cover, and highlights factors to be considered for future projects.

Jan 1, 2005

By G. Van Weert

ABSTRACT When exposed to microwaves, rocks containing sulphides adsorb energy preferentially over barren gangue and quickly become warmer with minimal energy consumption. This effect makes subsequent machine sorting of ore from waste rocks or overburden possible using infrared sensing. This paper reports on the 2450 MHz microwave response of a variety of sulphide minerals by mesh size and spatial distribution, as they might occur in ore rocks. The implications for infrared ore sorting are discussed.

Aug 1, 2011

By K. D. Mills, R. G. Robins, C. G. Anderson, L. G. Twidwell

Arsenic is a metalloid which has attracted great environmental scrutiny in recent decades. Moreover, its control and deportment is becoming increasingly important in the metallurgical processing of modern complex ores and concentrates. As such the authors of this publication have a combined professional experience of well over 100 years in the study and hydrometallurgical treatment of arsenic. Hence, this paper will cover arsenic fundamentals along with a review of technology for removal, fixation and stabilization. Finally, an application of industrial Alkaline Sulfide Leaching (ASL) of a copper enargite concentrate will be elucidated.

Jan 1, 2014

By D. O. Tansey

This paper will describe the mechanisms involved in delay blasting and how they are applied with the use of D.S.B. It will examine the control of potential damage resulting from detonations, and show how good fragmentation and efficient recovery of this material blasted can be achieved

Jan 1, 1979

This paper will discuss Fordertechnik dawatering screens and their application in process industries. Fordertechnik screens were designed for the dewatering of deslimed, wet fines materials encountered in the mineral beneficiation, sand and coal processing industries. However, these screens have also been used in such industries as municipal waste treatment, paper pulp, chemicals and the food industries. Fordertechnik screens are of simple design and, as a result, offer low capital and maintenance costs. The design is based on the use of twin counter-rotating vibratory motors which provide high frequency, low amplitude linear movement of the screen deck which is essential for high production requirements. Fordertechnik dewatering screens are engineered and manufactured in Australia by Mitchell Cotts Engineering under licence to Fordertechnik GmbH of Mulheim, West Germany

Jan 1, 1984

Develop a curved ray geotomographic program with constraints to counteract non-uniqueness in order to improve the reliability of seismic tomographic imaging of geological structure in mining regions. Background Seismic tomography provides a two-dimensional image (tomographic reconstruction) of the distribution of the seismic velocity in geologic structures using measured travel times of seismic waves crossing the area. It can provide a more complete representation of features be¬tween boreholes than other crosshole processing methods that measure only average properties or borehole logging methods that measure properties only near each borehole. Seismic tomography has many mining applications. They include locating geologic structures of contrasting seismic velocity, detecting fractured regions where the seismic velocity is low, and monitoring solution injected above the water table where the increase in saturation increases the seismic velocity. Thus, tomographic imaging techniques show great promise for detecting and locating geologic hazards that affect the productivity, safety, and environment of mining operations.

Jan 1, 1992

By Batric Pesic

Silver dissolution with thiourea was studied by using the rotating disk technique. The major parameters studied were: thiourea concentration (0-0.5M), ferric sulfate concentration (0-0.5M), sulfuric acid concentration (0-0.5M), and the effect of many foreign ions (Mn, o.i, Co, Ca, Na, etc.). Temperature effect was studied in the range 5-35 .C. The activation energy was 5.4 Kcal/mole. The dissolution of silver was first order with respect to ferric sulfate, and the secord order with respect to thiourea. Among the additives, copper had a dramatically negative effect. The strong oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide and manganese dioxide were also detrimental for silver dissolution. Silver does not dissolve with thiourea in the absence of ferric ions. Sulfuric acid does not participate in the dissolution reaction either. Chemically, the most important parameter for silver dissolution is the ferric sulfate/thiourea ratio. Thus, in the solutions with excess of ferric sulfate, a solid silver-thiourea complex is formed, which precludes transfer of silver into solution. In the solutions with the excess of thiourea, the free thiourea reacts with formed solid silver-thiourea complex and silver goes into the solution. The solid silver-thiourea complex was characterized according to its chemical composition. The complex contains 6.54%C, 2.49\H, 14.77%N, 16.09%0, 21.62%8, and 37.13% Ag. This composition corresponds to a Ag2so4.3'1U.2ff:i0 compound The soluble silver species are present in the solution as the dimers of AgTU+3 complexes.

Jan 1, 1989

By Leonard J. Friedman

The contact process for the production of sulfuric acid has been used commercially since before the turn of the century (1880?s), and rapidly replaced the chamber process after the development of vanadium catalysts in the early 1900's (1910's - 1920's). Plant size has increased from a few tons per week to single train units in excess of 4,000 tons per day. Much of the history of the contact process is in the minds of the few remaining early process pioneers that started in the industry in the 1920's and 1930?s, and in sulfuric acid industry books published in 1921, 1925, 1936, and the last Deucker and West in 1959. Since those not familiar with history are doomed to repeat the failures and mistakes of the past, this paper includes a brief history of the contact process along with the history and development of equipment and materials in each equipment area of the process. The main focus of the paper is to present the development and analysis of equipment and materials in the contact section of the sulfuric acid plant - from the dry tower to stack.

Jan 1, 1999

By D. J. Thorkelson

New data indicate Wernecke Breccia-associated iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits likely formed from moderate-temperature, high-salinity, non-magmatic brines. The breccias formed in an area underlain by a sedimentary sequence that locally contained evaporites (potential source of chloride and possibly sulfur) and was thick enough to produce elevated fluid temperatures. Metals (Fe, Cu, Co, U) were probably derived from host strata, transported as chloride complexes, and precipitated due to changes in fluid temperature and pressure during brecciation. These new data suggest that the spectrum of genetic models for IOCG deposits that typically invoke formation from magmatic or hybrid magmatic-non-magmatic fluids should be expanded to include those systems that formed in a non-magmatic environment. Modifications to the definition of IOCG systems are proposed that reflect the degree of involvement of magmatic and/or non-magmatic fluids and the nature of the mineralizing environment. A division into magmatic, non-magmatic, and hybrid magmatic-non-magmatic IOCG types is suggested. Typical magmatic end-member IOCG deposits include Lightning Creek and Eloise, Australia. Hybrid magmatic-nonmagmatic IOCG examples include Ernest Henry and Olympic Dam, Australia. The Wernecke Breccia and Redbank deposits are suggested as possible representatives of non-magmatic IOCG end members. Endmember magmatic IOCG deposits have similarities to some porphyry deposits, whereas non-magmatic IOCG end members share characteristic with some sediment-hosted Cu deposits, suggesting that the range of IOCG deposits may form a link between intrusive- and sediment-related deposits

Jan 1, 2007

Mining and oil industry representatives are scheduled to testify May 15 at hearings on the Simpson bill to extend the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, Several Congressmen have introduced bills to extend present trade agreements without modification. Price of copper appears to be stabilizing at 30[] per lb, after a period where market price ranged from 27 to 34[]. Copper offerings from abroad were finding no takers at 30.24[] per lb late in April.

Jan 5, 1953

By E. P. Abrahamson II

The effect of transitiorz element bitzary solid solution additions upon the recrystallization temperature of columbium has been investigated. The elements Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, W, Re, and 0s OWY the yecystallization tempel-aturye, while Ti, V, CY, zr, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Hf, Ta, W, Ir, and Pt mise it. A correlation is kloted between the rate of chatzge of recyystallization tewaperature with atomic hercent solute and the free atom electron configuration of the solute element. The work of Abrahamson and Grant1 has indicated a correlation between the free atom ground-state electron configuration and the change in brittle-ductile transition temperature per atomic percent solute in chromium base alloys. A similar correlation was observed for the change in the recrystallization temperature of iron base alloys by Abrahamson and Blakeney and Abrahamson. It was also observed that the limit of rapid change in recrystallization temperature also Correlated with the electronic configuration of the free solute atom. A further study by Abrahamson4 established the generality of the phenomenon by yielding similar results for vanadium base dilute alloys. It has been inferred that a peri- odicity might be expected with changes in the free atom electron configuration of the solvent element. This study is the third set of transition base metal systems to be studied. It is the object of this and further studies on transitional metal systems to detect any systematic variations in the observed correlation which might contribute to the understanding of the electron interactions which are evidently exhibiting themselves. PROCEDURE All alloys were made using 99.9 pct Cb with 0.030 Ta, 0.016 0, 0.0025 H, 0.003 Mo, 0.021 Fe, 0.005 C, and 0.002 N. The solute elements were 99.9 pct pure. According to the published binary phase diagrams5 and metallographic examinations at X750, all additions were in solid solution. The alloys were arc melted and remelted 6 times in the form of cubic 400-g buttons under an argon atmosphere. They were then hot forged at 1200oC to 0.6-in. diameter, annealed for 3 hr at 1200o under argon, and furnace cooled. The specimens were then machined to 0.400 -in. diameter. Grain size was checked and found to remain essentially constant at 150 i 30 grains per sq mm. The specimens were then cold swaged to 0.187-in. diameter, yielding 46 i 1 pct cold work. All alloys were chemically analyzed for the major solute. Analyses of random samples indicated that the impurity content remained at the values of the starting material. Tungsten contamination was held to 0.007 pet.

Jan 1, 1962

By M. A. Upham

"MINING is Canada's second largest basic industry, producing material with a gross value of 2.5 billion dollars, led only by agriculture with 2.9 billion dollars. It pro-vides employment, directly and in-directly, for three quarters of a million people. Since the Second War, the value of mineral production in Canada has tripled. Economists forecast that over the next 15 years its value will triple again. Canada is a basic and leading supplier of nickel, iron, copper, zinc, lead and uranium. It is also a major oil producer, leads the world in the production of asbestos and in five years will be the leading producer of potash, a basic constituent of fertilizer.It can be seen that Canada's wealth and economic progress lies in being a primary producer of economic minerals and in building secondary industries to manufacture finished products from these raw materials. Canada's future in the field of mineral production looks bright, with our resources just starting to be tapped. Outside of the large expanse of Soviet Russia, we are by far the world's most fertile mineral exploration area."

Jan 1, 1967

By W. Wittke, J. Gattermann

ABSTRACT: One alternative to close a radioactive waste repository in rock salt is the construction of a “Cross Section Closure (CSC)“ sealing barrier. The proposed material for the CSC is highly compacted bentonite. To investigate the swelling behaviour of a highly compacted bentonite a large number of laboratory tests were performed. In addition, large scale model test were carried out to demonstrate the development of a nearly homogeneous and isotropic swelling pressure. The results of the large scale model tests were interpreted numerically based on the models for stress-strain behaviour and water uptake which are implemented in the finite element codes FEST03 and HYDOPO. The investigations show a good agreement of the results of the model tests and the corresponding analyses and show, that the theoretical models are capable of describing the behaviour of sealing structures based on highly compacted bentonite. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Eine Möglichkeit für den Verschluß eines Endlagers für radioaktive Abfälle im Steinsalz ist die Konstruktion einer Querschnittsabdichtung aus hochverdichtetem Bentonit. Zur Untersuchung des Quellverhaltens von hochverdichtetem Bentonit wurden eine große Anzahl von Laborversuchen durchgeführt. Um die Entwicklung eines nahezu homogenen und isotropen Quelldrucks nachzuweisen, wurden darüber hinaus auch Modellversuche in größerem Maßstab durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Modellversuche wurden im Hinblick auf die Wasseraufnahme und das Spannungs-Verformungsverhalten mit Hilfe numerischer Berechnungen mit den finite Element Programmen FEST 03 und HYDOPO interpretiert. Die Untersuchungen zeigen gute Übereinstimmungen zwischen Versuchs- und Berechnungsergebnissen. Die numerischen Modelle sind somit geeignet, das Verhalten von Abdichtungsbauwerken aus hochverdichtetem Bentonit zutreffend zu beschreiben. RÉSUMÉ: Une possibilité pour fermer un dépôt final de déchets radioactifs dans sel gemme est la construction d'un étanchement de coupe transversale, fabriqué de bentonite fortement compacté. Pour étudier le comportement de gonflement de bentonite fortement compacté, de nombreux essais en laboratoire ont été exécutés. En outre, des essais sur modèle sur une plus grande échelle ont aussi été exécutes afin de prouver le développement d'une pression de gonflement à peu près homogène et isotrope. Les résultats de ces essais sur modèle étaient interprétés en vue de l'absorption d'eau et du comportement contraintes-déformations par le moyen de calculs numériques avec les programmes d'éléments finis FEST03 et HYDOPO. Les études montrent de bonnes conformités entre des résultats d'essai et de calcul. Les modèles numériques sont ainsi capables de décrire justement le comportement d'ouvrages d'étanchement fabriqués de bentonite fortement compacté.

Jan 1, 2003

By Eric P. Bregman

As part of an on-going effort to improve water quality and reduce discharge into Boston Harbor, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) East Boston Branch Sewer Relief Project was designed under a Federal mandate from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to upgrade the aging sewer system, increase system storage and greatly reduce the volume of combined sewer overflows into the Harbor. The project scope of work includes the installation of over 2 miles (11,800 linear feet) of 36-inch and 66-inch diameter sewer relief piping, twenty (20) temporary shafts and an approximate 100 foot open cut section, located within the densely populated neighborhood of East Boston, Massachusetts. This area is a former marshland backfilled in the early to mid 1800?s where busy commercial streets co-mingle with thickly settled residential houses. The subsurface conditions present within Boston?s complex geology include the presence of subsurface contamination as well as complex networks of underground utilities. Additional site limitations included low headroom, noise, and traffic restrictions. Together these limitations required the design of individual earth support systems, tailored for each shaft location. Moreover, challenging subsurface conditions identified during construction required design modifications to minimize cost and schedule impacts related to construction dewatering, treatment of contaminated groundwater, internal bracing, and utility relocations. This paper provides a case history of the Geo-structural design and performance of various earth support techniques utilized to construct jacking and receiving shafts designed to launch and receive two (2) micro-tunnel boring machines (MTBM) and to support the construction of new deep shaft structures in an urban coastal area.

By J. L. Huitt, B. B. McGlothlin, J. J. Day

Laboratory tests were made with pure minerals and actual reservoir rock samples to study the effects of hydrothermal (steam m hot water) treatments on reservoir rock properties. These tests showed that hydro-thermal treatment of many reservoir rocks can result in significant rock softening. The softening was attributed primarily to the partial destruction of dolomite and kaolinite and the synthesis of montmorillonite in the presence of excess silica. In many cases, the softening was great enough to cause considerable healing of propped fractures; therefore, a serious reduction in welt productivity could result. In other tests it was found that the addition of ammonia to a hydrothermal treating fluid in a concentration as low as 0.013 Ib/lb of water not only could prevent rock softening but could cause rock hardening. The results of X-ray diflraction analyses of rock samples showed that when ammonia was added to the treating fluid, ammonium-mica and analcite were formed instead of montmorillonite. No significant permeability damage was observed in the sandstones that were subjected to the ammonia-hydro-thermal environment; in some sandstones, permeabifity improvements resulted. INTRODUCTION As the use of steam or hot water becomes more prevalent in well stimulation methods. the need for information on the effects of such treatments on reservoir rock properties becomes increasingly apparent. Several works have been published on high-temperature changes in rock properties,',' but these are more applicable to in situ combustion operations than to steam or hot water injection processes. The mineralogical literature contains many publications which report on the changes occurring with various pure minerals in hydrothermal systems. A review of this literature denotes the ease with which entirely new, crystalline mineral phases can be synthesized from other minerals in hydrothermal environments at temperatures, pressures and residence times typical of those encountered in oilfield thermal recovery or stimulation processes. Discussions of many of these experiments are given by Deer et al. Grim,' Roy et al., Zen\ and Hawkins.' One of the most significant of these pure mineral studies is the hydrothermal synthesis work of Levinson and Vian" in which montmorillonite was synthesized from naturally occurring minerals; i.e., kaolinite, quartz and carbonate minerals (particularly dolomite). These reactions occurred at 575F in only 2 days and at 300F in 5 days. These results may be applicable to petroleum reservoir rocks since the minerals studied were those which are commonly found in sandstones. Furthermore, the environmental conditions imposed in the studies were very similar to those involved in thermal stimulation of petroleum reservoirs, e.g., steam or hot water injection. Other studies have suggested that weak rocks could be hardened by "electrochemical induration", a process in which an electric current is applied to a clay-containing rock body. These tests can be regarded as hydrothermal treatments since they were conducted in some instances with aqueous solutions and since clay temperatures during the electrical treatment reached a maximum of about 100C. Although a number of studies of the reaction of pure minerals have been reported, very little has been published on the reactions of petroleum rock-hydrothermal systems. No work has been reported on preventing the more detrimental rock changes in rock softening which might occur during the injection of steam or hot water into reservoirs. The studies described in this paper were conducted to provide such information. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The laboratory tests included studies of the effect of hydrothermal treatment on core samples from several different reservoirs. The hydrothermal treatments (simulated steam treatments) were conducted with distilled water at 575F, for the most part, for periods of 2 to 6 days. This temperature level was selected because it represented that temperature which would probably prevail in several cases under consideration for steam injection projects. The core samples, as well as the pure mineral samples, were contained in high-pressure stainless steel, autoclave-type pressure vessels. The effects of the hydrothermal treatments were evaluated by measuring the penetrometer hardness, formation rock embedment strength and permeabilities of the core samples before and after the treatments (Fig. 1)'" In addition, the mineralogical changes in the specimens were studied by X-ray diffraction. Concomitant with the core sample studies, the mineralogical changes were studied in greater detail by conducting hydrothermal synthesis experiments with pure minerals at similar temperature levels and residence times. For the most part, samples of finely-crushed pure dolomite.

By M. R. Haibach, M. L. Shema, J. M. Silvis

"Since 2005, longwall coal mine operators in Pennsylvania (US) have been required to collect extensive hydrologic and biological data to document pre- and post-mining conditions of aquatic resources (streams and wetlands) overlying the subsidence control plan areas. Continued operation of the longwall mine is dependent upon empirical data demonstrating that the undermined aquatic resources have either been maintained or restored to an accepted range of pre-mining conditions. This study used quantitative hydrologic methods and comparative biological metrics to examine response of aquatic resources to longwall subsidence at the Bailey Mine located in Greene County, Pennsylvania. This study analyzed data from over 25 miles of streams and over 8 acres of wetlands that traverse the 4,779-acre study area. Hydrologic analysis of flow intermittency suggested that there are variable degrees of change to headwater streams immediately following mining; however, the majority of the effects are reversible through streamflow mitigation measures. Furthermore, the post-mining discharge from streams can be restored to within the range of pre-mining conditions the majority of the time. Biological assessments showed that greater than 95% of assessed stream length has maintained its ability to support benthic macroinvertebrate communities following mining and intervention (i.e., mitigation). Comparative metrics of the benthic macroinvertebrate communities showed that the biological community in 48 of the 50 sample sites is being maintained or restored across both high- and low-gradient streams. The effectiveness of intervention was further substantiated by the similarity in recovery times between streams having no intervention (median = 2.1 years, 95th percentile = 4.9 years) and streams with intervention, when recovery times were measured from the date of the intervention (median = 1.7 years, 95th percentile = 4.7 years). Changes to individual wetlands were observed between the pre- and post-mining assessments, but cumulatively a net gain of 7% in wetland acreage was realized. Hydrologic assessments were used to infer whether there was a potential that streams had been affected by mining; however, the ultimate test of stream recovery is based on biological metrics that establish the relative quality of the biological communities following mining. Overall, the hydrologic balance is being protected and the aquatic life use of streams is being maintained within the Bailey Mine’s subsidence control plan areas."

Jan 1, 2017

By F. C. Robles Hernandez

This paper presents the results of the electromagnetic semi-solid treatment of the 319 aluminum foundry alloy, Various levels of structure modification were achieved controlling the AC current used to create the Electromagnetic Field, thus manipulating the intensity of the field, The level of grain refinement, partial modification of the Al-Si eutectic, as well as cellular dendrites were observed, A quantitative analysis of the structure was performed using Image Analysis (IA) techniques. In addition a novel Thermal Analysis methodology was developed for the on-line determination of the microstructure modification level.

Jan 1, 2004

By John McGhee, Jack Newcombe, M. J. Rzasa

A series of water floods was made on laboratory prepared unconsoli-dated sand columns to study the effects on oil recovery of the solid-water-oil contact angle, the oil-water interfacial tension, flood rate, and oil viscosity. A procedure was developed for treating silica sand with silicone polymer to produce surfaces of varying degrees of wettability as evaluated by measuring the contact angle on a flat silica plate that had been simultaneously treated with the sand. Fluid interfacial tensions were changed by the use of surface active agents in the flood water. Water-wet, oil-wet, and intermediate wettability systems were studied at high and at low values of interfacial tension, at several flood rates, and with oils of different viscosities. For both oil-wet and water-wet systems and a low viscosity oil, recoveries were functions of the oil-water interfacial tension; also, increase in flood rate resulted in increased oil recoveries. High interfacial tension floods were more efi- cient than low interfacial tension floods on water-wet systems, while low interfacial tension floods were more eficient on oil-wet systems. Intermediate or neutral wettability systems were less sensitive to rate of flood advance and interfacial tension than either oil-wet or water-wet systems. The eflects of surface forces on oil recovery for high viscosity oils were not so well defined as for low viscosity oils. INTRODUCTION Reservoir rock surfaces vary in their wettability1, some being water-wet while others are apparently oil-wet. The factor of wettability enters into reservoir performance in both primary and secondary recovery, and into laboratory measurements of capillary pressure, connate water saturation, and relative permeabilities.' In theory, the degree of wettability is measured by the contact angle for the system solid-water-oil. A water-wet system is defined as one in which the advancing water contact angle is less than 90". An oil-wet system is one in which the advancing water contact angle is greater than 90°.3 The surface forces in a solid-water-oil system are related by the Young-Dupree equation as follows4: These surface forces are commonly expressed as the difference in adhesion tension, or the product of the water-oil interfacial tension and the contact angle. If the contact angle is less than 90°, the adhesion tension difference is positive and oil displacement by water from a solid surface will be spontaneous and favored by a high oil-water interfacial tension. If the angle is greater than 90" the displacement will not be spontaneous but will require less energy the lower the oil-water interfacial tension. The contact angle and interfacial tension also appear in the capillary pressure equation5: PC = 2ocosejr .... (2) The quantity cos was used by Rapoport and Leas6 s a factor in the generalized form of their "sealing coefficient." Warren and Cal-houn' presented the results of cos on oil recovery in oil-wet systems and correlated their data using a "scaling coefficient" suggested by Jones-Parra and Calhoun.8 The "sealing coefficients" were advanced to help correlate the effects of the variables influencing oil recovery by

Jan 1, 1956

By Willem P. C. Duyvesteyn

"Scandium International Mining Corp (SCY) has been involved in the commercial development of its Nyngan Scandium Project for about ten years. Various studies at a variety of global R&D organizations have been carried out in an attempt to define the deportment of scandium in both the limonite as well as the saprolite phases of Nyngan ore to assist with process development. Technologies such as sulfuric acid baking, high pressure acid leaching, sulfuric and hydrochloric acid atmospheric leaching and heap leaching have been extensively investigated both at the bench and pilot scale level to arrive at the most economic process flow sheet that will be discussed in some detail in this paper. Solvent extraction, ion exchange and other refining technologies have been tested and an optimum configuration has been established for the Nyngan project which is expected to be the first primary scandium mine and metallurgical plant in the world.Because of a lack of product availability the current scandium market is limited to less than 20 tons per year. Technologies have been identified to produce product with different specifications for aluminum alloys and solid oxide fuel cell applications. Preliminary economics have identified that Nyngan will be a robust and low capital cost project that can readily be expanded as the size of the scandium market increases."

Jan 1, 2016