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By E. L. Rawlins

The development of commercial natural-gas reserves in the Michigan stray sandstone horizon of central Michigan during the past few years has resulted in expansion of the natural-gas industry in that State. The location of the natural- gas reserves of Michigan in the general vicinity of domestic and industrial markets is of economic importance, and in supplying these markets with natural gas a reasonable knowledge of the extent and availability of the reserves is needed in formulating regulations for drilling gas wells and producing natural gas, in analyzing the feasibility of projects to construct natural-gas transmission lines, in promoting and developing markets for the domestic and industrial consumption of natural gas, and In solving many engineering and economic problems common to the natural-gas industry. The development of the natural-gas industry in Michigan has been related closely to the development of oil production. The potential oil production of Michigan is comparable with that in most of the eastern oil-producing States. The development of oil production probably will continue, especially in the central Michigan Basin area; and as wells are drilled to deep horizons in the search for oil, more knowledge will be obtained of the gas reserves in formations above the oil- bearing horizons.

Jan 1, 1936

By Maurice Ewing

THE purpose of this paper is to present the results of the application of the earth-resistivity method of subsurface investigation to the problem of locating seams of anthracite coal beneath a mantle of soil and subsoil. Details are given of the successful use of this method in locating the outcrops of anthracite seams in actual prospecting. The presence of the outcrop of an anthracite seam is indicated at points where electrical resistivity tests showed relatively low readings. The reason for, this is that in some localities the resistivity of anthracite was found to be about 0.0001 megohm-cm. compared to 1 to 200 megohm-cm. for shales and sandstones. For two reasons it is believed that the data sum-marized in this paper should be of particular interest. In the first place, most of the interpretations of the resistivity survey have been checked by subsequent drilling and some by the removal of the overburden and the exposing of the anthracite seams. It is infrequent that the oppor-tunity for checking results so thoroughly is given. In the second place, the fact that recent commentators 1.2.1 on the application of geophysical methods to mining have concluded that direct prospecting for anthracite and other types of coal is not promising makes the good results obtained more significant. So far as the authors can learn, the only previous experiment with electrical methods in the Pennsylvania anthracite field was one made by Sherwin F. Kelly in 1922, when he used the self-potential method at Wilkes-Barre4. The profile he made does not show a very marked correlation with the geologic cross section. Kelly points out that stray currents from electric motors in the mines undoubtedly affected his results, but the experience of the present authors with stray currents from mining machinery suggests the possibility that the potentials measured by Kelly were due almost entirely to this effect.

Jan 1, 1936

By Norman F. Patton

The subject assigned is so broad that thorough discussion is well-nigh impossible within the space allotted, and further, few specific data are available upon which to predicate conclusions concerning the efficiency of present methods of distributing anthracite. This paper treats briefly the various agencies through which both primary and secondary distribution are effected, the methods of transportation and the general interrelation of production, demand, inventories and price. Avenues of Distribution Three distinct types of primary distribution are common in the marketing of anthracite. First, though not most important, is the sale by the producer, or operator, direct to the consumer. These sales, other than to employees and the local trade, are generally confined to steam sizes for industrial uses, and are consigned to the sidings or docks of the consumer. Sales of this type often are so closely priced to compete with oil and bituminous that the addition of even a small dealer's margin is sufficient to increase the cost to the point where the business might be lost. Second, the operator sells to a wholesaler or broker for subsequent resale, either to a retail dealer for clearance through his yard or direct to large consumers. Usually this method of distribution is employed by the smaller operators, who do not find it economically feasible to maintain extensive sales organizations. In most instances, the wholesaler retains some 5 per cent for his services, paid, of course, by the producing company whose anthracite he handles. He may, and frequently does, handle the output of several different companies, suited to the varying needs of the different communities he serves. His business includes all sizes of anthracite. The third, and by far the most general method, consists in selling to retail dealers, shipments being made direct from the breakers to the yards of the dealers. In large consuming areas, such as the metropolitan districts of New York or Philadelphia, one operator may sell to several

Jan 1, 1936

By Francis Crockard

DURING the past five years we have probably witnessed greater technological advances than in any similar period. Industry and science have steadily marched ahead. The makers of iron and steel products have watched with great interest the development of stream-lined trains, faster and safer airplanes, the entirely new science of air-conditioning and the widespread use of stainless steels. Since 1930, we have witnessed the erection of the world's largest suspension bridge, the largest and fastest ocean liner and the spectacular Boulder Dam, while even greater things are planned in these particular fields. Other indus-tries, too, have been moving ahead rapidly. This advance in a few years has been caused primarily by the fierce competition of the depression. Now, more than ever, is the emphasis placed upon quality and service. Makers of southern merchant pig iron have been no exception and have been confronted with increasingly strict chemical specifications and with much greater stress on physical characteristics than ever before. For example, sulfur in the iron must be held very low, competition demanding that it be in the 0.020's and low 0.030's; silicon content must be held within a very narrow range, and definite requirements of phos-phorus and manganese are an essential part of the specifications. Physical characteristics are becoming of increasingly greater impor-tance. The introduction of triple-skimmed, slow-cooled iron several years ago was the first step in this direction. Now there are a few customers who buy iron by chemical analysis and physical appear-ance, having found that the analysis alone is an insufficient guide to their requirements.

Jan 1, 1936

By Ralph Sherman

THE remarkable increase in the distribution of the small underfeed stoker for use in furnaces and boilers in small industrial plants, apartment houses and homes has brought producers and distributors of bituminous coal to consider the problem of which coals and which sizes are best suited to this market. Many papers have also appeared, mostly in the trade journals, discussing the problem of the combustion of various coals and various sizes of coal in small stokers. Much difference of opinion has been apparent in these articles; due often, it would appear, to a mis-understanding of the fundamentals of the process of combustion in the stoker fuel bed. During the past year and a half, a program of research has been conducted at Battelle Memorial Institute: (1) On the process of combus-tion in the fuel bed of the small stoker, sponsored by Battelle Memorial Institute, and (2) on the relation of the characteristics of bituminous coals to their performance on small underfeed stokers, sponsored by Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. As a result of this program of research, two publica-tions have been made, one1 dealing with the problem of clinker formation, and the other2 with the relation of the size of the coal fed to the stoker hopper to that of the coal that reaches the retort to be burned. The experimental research on the relation of size to the performance of the coal is being actively continued. A publication of Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. presenting the data obtained on the performance of several sizes of four typical bituminous coals will appear shortly. Because of the early appearance of that publication, the present paper includes few numerical data. The purpose of this paper is to follow the coal from the hopper through the furnace with a discussion of the various actions that occur, in the hope that it will lead to a clearer understanding of the relation of the type of coal, the size of coal, and other characteristics, to the performance. The authors do not pretend to have obtained the answers to all the complex questions involved; many unanswered questions will be proposed on which future research work is planned.

Jan 1, 1936

By F. W. Lee

This paper purposes to outline briefly results of seismic measurements made in the vicinity of blasts in a mine and in open-quarry operations. It endeavors to examine the amplitude and frequency of such vibrations as influenced by the loading, geology, and distance from the source and includes comments on factors that may index the destructiveness of a vibration and a method for measuring the stresses produced. There seems to be no simple mathematical analysis of the transmission of seismic energy through the ground, and experimental observations are at present most feasible. SEISMOLOGIC INSTRUMENTS Instruments developed by the Bureau of Mines for recording ground vibrations from quarry blasting comprise a new type of seismometer, oscillators, and a recording oscillograph. The seismometers respond to vibrations reaching them through the earth and transmit their characteristics by electric current to the oscillograph, where they are recorded by a beam of light on a moving strip of sensitized photographic paper. The seismometers are so constructed that their sensitivity to earth vibration can be controlled, thus keeping the amplitude of the recorded wave within bounds on the paper. Each instrument has been calibrated against vibrations of known intensity and frequency so that correction factors are known for the idiosyncracies of each unit. Moreover, each seismometer is calibrated in the field for its particular sensitivity setting at each blast. By these controls the actual movement of the earth due to vibrations of one ten-thousandth of an inch can be accurately measured.

Jan 1, 1936

By Charles Maier

IT has long been supposed that when crystalline materials are com-minuted the energy used in the production of increasingly smaller grain sizes is not entirely dissipated as heat but that a certain portion is "stored" as a part of the internal energy of the material. This portion usually has been called the "surface energy" of the particles. The practical interest of the Bureau of Mines in this subject in connection with the energy requirements of crushing processes has led to the author's attempt to measure the "stored" energy in finely divided calcite by heat-of-solution methods1. The experiments on calcite showed that "storage" of energy could not be proved for this material, because fine grinding caused a lack of chem-ical homogeneity evidenced by loss of carbon dioxide and subsequent adsorption of water on the surfaces of the calcite particles. When thermochemical correction was made for composition changes the cor-rected heat of solution was less for fine material than for coarse. Con-tinuation of the experimental work into the problem of comparing work and heat in the deformation of metallic crystals, where the calorimetric difficulties were less, showed, however, that in the case of copper and aluminum a real discrepancy between work and heat could be shown. similar results had previously been obtained by Farren and Taylor2 and Hort3 and more or less simultaneously with the author's work by

Jan 1, 1936

By Oliver Bowles

The manufacture of lime is one of the oldest industries. Plants are distributed widely and furnish an essential raw material for numerous industries. The use of lime by the building trades, in agriculture, and in hundreds of manufacturing and chemical processes has created demands for a large production and has necessitated exhaustive research on methods of manufacture and uses. The bibliography of lime is an extensive one, but for the most part each publication has dealt with only certain operations. The purpose of this paper is to present a general picture of the industry as a whole. The abundant literature has been abstracted and quoted freely, and the National Lime Association has rendered valuable assistance in furnishing data for certain sections. Publications containing more detailed information on the various branches of the industry are referred to in the footnotes and in the bibliography.

Jan 1, 1936

By E. C. Lane

This is the first publication in a projected series of reports on properties of commercial motor fuels pursuant to a cooperative agreement between the Cooperative Fuel Research (C.F.R.) Committee and the Bureau of Mines of the Department of the Interior. The report gives results of analyses in oil-company laboratories of samples of gasoline obtained from service-station pumps in 18 marketing areas by representatives of oil companies. These companies obtained the samples and analyzed them for their own information and supplied data from their laboratory reports to the Bureau of Mines for compilation and publication. History of Bureau of Mines Gasoline Surveys The following quotation from Report of Investigations 3162/4 is included in this place for the information of readers who are not familiar with the Bureau of Mines gasoline surveys that have preceded the present report:

Jan 1, 1936

By J. L. Rodda

A large amount of time has been devoted to the microscopical study of the copper-zinc alloys, emphasis naturally being placed upon the commercially important alloys of the system. Suitable methods are available for microscopically recognizing the two phases richest in copper, Per cent,by weight FIG. 1.-COPPER-ZINC EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM. (Frond National Metals Handbook, 1933.) but none appear to have been developed for the positive identification of the other phases. This is, however, accomplished, for the phases normally encountered, by an electrolytic method described in the following pages. Five phases of the copper-zinc diagram (Fig. 1) are considered for the purpose of this paper: the solid solution of zinc in copper, alpha (a); the intermediate phases, beta (ß), gamma (y), and epsilon (e); and the solid solution of copper in zinc, eta (n). Beta prime is not considered a separate

Jan 1, 1936

By R. E. Head

UNDER existing economic conditions, the treatment of gold ores occupies an outstanding position in metallurgical activity. The increased price of gold has automatically brought about a reclassification of old dumps and low-grade orebodies, and many that formerly were considered valueless are now being vigorously investigated and worked. This situation has developed problems that have taxed the ingenuity and ability of metallurgists to the utmost. Some gold ores give a high extraction of gold by standardized methods of treatment; other ores of apparently similar character yield but a relatively small percentage of their gold when treated by the same processes.

Jan 1, 1936

By Allen J. Johnson

With a realization of the rapidly increasing importance of automatic stokers as a medium for domestic heating, the Anthracite Institute Laboratory has conducted extensive investigations, over a period of several years, to determine the various outstanding characteristics of stoker design and performance. The purpose of this paper is to summarize these findings as a guide to current practices. Stokees Investigated One or more models of the underfeed stokers listed below were included in the various phases of this investigation: Beckley Gilkoal Burnwell Iron Fireman Combustioneer Motor Stokor Electric Furnace Man Norristown Super-stoker Erie Heat Generator Whitney Fire Ball (Tests Incomplete.) Fuel Saver Principles of Construction.—The operating principle of the leading makes of underfeed stokers is similar (Fig. 1). A plunger1 or slowly revolving worm2, conveys the buckwheat or rice sizes of anthracite to the center of a specially constructed tuyere pot where air is admitted to the coal through suitable ports of varying design. As the fuel burns, it is slowly forced to the outside circumference of the tuyere by the pressure of the incoming coal; eventually the ash falls over the edge of the pot, either entirely by gravity or aided by mechanical sweepers. In at least one model, the entire firepot revolves. While various special details have been included in the design of a number of stokers, they do not affect the general principles as described above, and therefore have not been included in this discussion.

Jan 1, 1936

By Jos. R. Guiteras

This paper has been written to describe briefly the mining and milling of gold and silver ores in the Black Canyon and neighboring mining districts in Yavapai County, Ariz. The description of present operations is the result of a 10-day visit to the region by the writer in March 1936. Acknowledgments The author is indebted to earlier writers on the geology and mining in this regions and to the mine managers and their staffs, whose courteous cooperation has made possible the assembling' of material for this paper. Individual acknowledgments are made in the text.

Jan 1, 1936

By C. Gerow

THIS paper is entitled "Some" problems, rather than "The" problems, met in selling coal, since the problems to be met in selling any commodity have to deal with an infinite number of circumstances and conditions. These are believed to be more varied in the case of coal than probably any other commodity. This is due, perhaps, to the fact that coal has been one of the basic materials in the guiding of industrial and national achievement for the past two hundred years. During this time its use has developed from a most haphazard one to uses involving all modern scientific methods, which, rather than simplifying matters as regards the marketing of coal, have added many fresh problems, and these vary according to the particular market served. Since the concern of this paper is primarily the selling of Nova Scotia coal, it is proposed to deal chiefly with some of the specific conditions met in the markets presently served by this coal. For the purpose of discussion, these markets may be considered as divided into three main groups, namely, the Maritime market, the Quebec market, and the Ontario market. THE MARITIME MARKET First of all, let us consider the Maritime market. This is a market which has been regularly served by Nova Scotia coal since coal mining became the first industry in Cape Breton, slightly over one hundred years ago. Conditions as applying to the use of coal have naturally tended to adjust themselves to the characteristics of the coal most readily available, and, therefore, marketing problems are fewer in the Maritimes than in districts where many coals of varied characteristics are offered. Up to recent years, the problems involved were chiefly those of providing satisfactory service insofar as de-liveries were concerned. However, with the speeding-up of manufacturing processes and the necessity of reducing costs to a minimum, users of coal have become interested in obtaining coal that will give the most economical service. It is, therefore, now of importance that the salesman should have full knowledge of the particular conditions applicable to each customer's use in order to deal to the best advantage.

Jan 1, 1936

By K. K. Kelley

The entropy values at 298.1° K. for the elements and inorganic compounds, on which sufficient data were available for calculation in 1931, were discussed in a previous publication (96).3 Since that time the specific beats at low' temperatures of many more inorganic substances have been determined, and considerable advances have been made in the realms of spectroscopy applicable to the determination of thermodynamic properties. Moreover, a critical study of the existing vapor-pressure data made by the author (98) furnishes entropy of vaporization results suitable for obtaining approximate values of the entropies of a number of gases from the entropies of the solids or liquids. Consequently, it appears worth while at the present time to supplement the former publication, giving the new values now obtainable and making such revision in the older values as the data warrant. The methods of calculating entropies were discussed in previous publications (96, 98) and will not be repeated here. ENTROPIES AT 298.1° K. FOR INORGANIC SUBSTANCES In the following pages, the same arrangement is followed as in the previous publication (96). All entropy values are expressed in 15° gram-calories per degree Kelvin per gram-formula mass of substance. The figures given for gases do not include the effect of nuclear spin, as is nearly universally customary at present. The estimates of accuracy in the case of the values obtained from heat-capacity data apply only to the existing measurements and to the necessary extrapolations as they are made. It is assumed usually that the substances are in such an energy condition at the lowest temperatures reached in the specific-heat measurements that the usual normal type of extrapolation may be made. No allowance is made for error in this assumption. The recent work on Gd2SO4. 8H2O and FeC13 illustrates the difficulties that may arise in obtaining the entropies of some paramagnetic substances. Also the data and calculations for such substances as CO, H20, and N20 show that the correct entropy is not obtained in all cases by indiscriminate application of the usual

Jan 1, 1936

By V. H. Wilhelm

During the first half of the year 1935, the oil industry in California was on a fairly profitable basis, owing mainly to the operation of the Petroleum Marketing Agency. Coincident with the discontinuance of enforced curtailment, California production surged upward from an average of about 500,000 bbl. per day (over the first five-month period) to approximately 625,000 bbl. per day (over the last seven-month period). On Dec. 9 the state production had reached a peak of over 700,000 bbl., a figure that had not been approximated since the early days of voluntary curtailment (Fig. 1). A price cut was instituted during the last half of August, but had no deterring effect on operators that were determined to take advantage of the breakdown of curtailment and produce to capacity. New reserve figures, compiled from actual potentials, available after cessation of curtailment, revealed the startling fact that California reserves were rapidly declining. This situation, coupled with the desire among operators to obtain a more equitable price for their dwindling reserves, caused a restoration in November of a portion of the August price slash. A further rise in price was effected in early December, and crude quotations at the end of the year closely approximated those in effect during the first right months. At the close of the year, the industry felt confident that the production situation was under control. In all fields where competition is keen because of close spacing, production is gradually declining. In the Los Angeles Basin especially there is no likelihood of a large amount of overproduction, unless a new pool is discovered or deeper drilling reveals a prolific source of crude. As long as the fields that are operated by a few companies, such as Kettleman Hills, North Belridge, Ventura Avenue, West Coyote, Dominguez, and some others, can be controlled, it is believed that the overproduction problem in California will be solved.

Jan 1, 1936

By J. Koster

In the western United States occurs deposits of low-grade chromite which, when concentrated, may be reduced to ferrochromiun in electric furnaces that derive energy from dams and hydro plants now in course of construction. Montana ore was chosen for the experiments. A 1-ton sample contained 26 percent Cr203, 17 percent Fed, and 17 percent SiO2, plus other constituents, and the concentrates therefrom assayed 44 -percent Cr203, 23 percent FeO, and 0.79 per cent SiO2, Gravity concentration was found to be the best method. Ferrochromiums are of two grades - high-carbon with 66 to 70 percent chromium and 4-112 to 6 percent carbon and low-carbor with 67 to 72 percent chromium and 0.6 to 2 percent carbon. Both are made in electric furnaces that use anthracite as a reducer and suit-able fluxes. The concentrates mentioned mere smelted under different conditions, and it was concluded that domestic ore could be reduced with anthracite to produce a ferrochromium of S to 10 percent carbon content at yields of 90 percent without retreating the slag. This carbon may be lowered to required proportion with calcium and silicon, but the former requires a great excess and the latter leaves an alloy high in silicon. INTRODUCTION Chromite occurs in several regions of the United States, but the known deposits of this mineral have not been large enough or high grade enough to permit them to compete under normal conditions with imported ores. There are numerous deposits of chrome ore along the West coast. These are generally conceded to be relatively small, although some -were worked during the World War. There are some indications of a revival of interest in California chromites. Montana contains large chromite deposits in Stillwater and Sweetgrass Counties. The utilization of chromite for ferrochromium and. the manufacture of stainless steels is distinctly an electrometallurgical problem; consequently, a study of methods for treatment of chromite might pave the way for the establishment of new electrometallurgical industries in the Western States. This thought is supported by the cheap power that is soon to become available from the western dams. Farther, submarginal domestic chrome deposits might thus be turned into profitable producers.

Jan 1, 1936

By McHenry Mosier

This progress report on a national survey of the use of detachable bits in metal mines covers 10 mines. It presents comparative costs for drilling with conventional and detachable bits, describes the reconditioning of drill steel, and gives various data on rock drilling at these particular mines. Reports to follow will include similar data on drilling at other metal mines in the United States. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report is based on costs and data developed and furnished by the operators of the mines visited. The author is greatly indebted to the officials and staff members at these mines for their cooperation and assistance.

Jan 1, 1936

By Gilbert Doan

AN extensive program of investigation is being carried out at Lehigh University in the study of arcs and arc welds of high-purity iron1, spon-sored by the Engineering Foundation. The part of that program reported in the present paper deals with welds made of high-purity iron in an argon atmosphere and for comparison with them welds made of the same iron in ordinary air. Welds of commercial steel also were made in argon and in air. The primary purpose of the study is to discover the basic physical constants of iron welds when not contaminated either by impurities in the iron or by the action of oxygen and nitrogen of the air during welding. Upon these constants can be founded such future studies as will determine what effects the various impurities and alloy elements present in steel have upon its welding characteristics, and what influence is exerted by the action of oxygen and nitrogen. The welding of steel involves such a multitude of variables, both of composition and of procedure, that development in the fabrication of this most important metal has necessarily been slow, wasteful, and in many instances discouraging. In the present investigation, the simplest possible condition has been selected; namely, iron practically free from contamination and a nonparticipating atmosphere, the inert gas argon. This simplification reduces the number of variables to a point where more rigid control of the system is possible. Although this study is significant for the contributions it makes to the science of steel fabrication, yet it is hoped that it will not be without value also in increasing knowledge of the nature and behavior of iron and steel in general. From the standpoint of open-hearth practice, and to

Jan 1, 1936

By E. H. Wells, A. Andreas

The oil and gas industry of New Mexico recorded notable progress ill 1935. More wells were brought in than in any previous year, and important new discoveries were made. The total number of completions was 340, of which 260 were oil wells, 8 were gas wells and 72 were dry holes. The total oil production was 20,228,947 bbl., an appreciable increase over the 1934 production of 16,636,804 barrels. Many of the wells completed in southeastern New Mexico were acidized. This treatment proved highly effective in increasing the capacity of the wells, the resulting potentials usually being two to ten times as large as before acid treatment. In the Lea County fields in which proration was entirely on an acreage basis, the tendency of many of the operators was to complete their wells according to best conservation practice rather than to obtain the largest possible potential. Much remedial work was done in the Hobbs, Cooper, Jal and Eunice fields, and with excellent results. At many of the wells high gas-oil ratios were greatly reduced and encroaching waters shut off by setting packers. Several companies carried on pretentious geophysical campaigns in the southeastern part of the state. The location of the Amerada discovery well in the Monument field was based on geophysical surveys. The New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission, established by the 1935 Legislature and consisting of the Governor, the Commissioner of Public Lands and the State Geologist, began to function in May. Production in the state thereafter was based on orders issued by the Commission. Proration in the Hobbs field, which had been provided for since July, 1930, by successive proration agreements signed by all operators in the field and approved by the State Geologist, was continued by the Commission by giving approval to the current proration agreement,. A plan of proration for the other Lea County fields that had been in offect since early ill 1934 was adopted. 111 September, 1935, the Commission approved a. proration agreement for the Artesia-Jackson-Maljarnar area in Eddy and Lea counties that had been agreed upon by

Jan 1, 1936