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By J. B. Pullen

THE United Verde mine is in the north central part of Arizona, on the. north-easterly slope of the Black Hills, near the town of Jerome. Ore was first discovered in the district about 1875, and the first mining claims were located by M. A. Ruffner and associates in 1877. In 1888 the late Senator William A. Clark secured control of the property and under his ownership it developed into one of the country's most important copper producers. The property was sold to the Phelps Dodge Corporation in 1935, and since then has been under this Corporation's management. Except for shutdowns caused by general world-market conditions, production has been continuous from 189o to date. GEOLOGY The mineralized zone ranges in area from approximately 12 acres to less than 5 acres. All mineralization occurs in the pre-Cambrian intrusives. The first intrusion, according to geologic records, was the quartz porphyry, which later was intruded by augite diorite. Following the diorite intrusion through a series of intrusions of lesser magnitude, a pipelike mass of massive sulphide, quartz and rock was formed. The diorite forms the hanging wall of this mass, and the porphyry the footwall. Between the footwall and the sulphide a band of chlorite schist was formed, probably owing to metamorphic conditions. Commercial ore occurs along the contact of the schist and sulphide extending into the sulphide, sometimes entirely through the schist, and fingering out into the porphyry. The ore deposit was formed by replacement similar to deposits formed in limestone areas. Faulting and deformation occurred in pre-Cambrian times and again in the Tertiary period, removing approximately 2000 ft. from the top of the main United Verde ore body, forming the United Verde Extension ore body, the only other major ore body in the district. Major development work has shown that the sulphide mass extends to the 3300-ft. level, and diamond drilling below this level has indicated that the mass might extend below the 3700-ft. level, but in a diminished quantity. While many copper minerals exist in the mine, the chief commercial mineral is chalcopyrite. A plan and vertical section of the mineralized zone showing the principal geological features is shown in Figs. I and 2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND PHYSICAL CONDITION OF MINE After over 50 years of active production, ore still exists on almost every level of the mine. This condition is due to many causes -mine fires, which broke out as early as 1894, caused the abandonment of certain areas; subsidence and ground movements retarded the cleaning up of others. Furthermore, in the early days there was such an abundance of ore that when mining became difficult it was a simple matter to replace the production by going to a deeper level. Several attempts were made to recover the ore in the fire zone, both by glory-holing

Jan 1, 1941

By J. R. Thoenen

[Before 1914 Germany held virtual monopoly on the world supply of potash for fertilizer purposes. During the world War, potash shipments to the United States ceased, and recourse was had to domestic supplies. High war-time prices stimulated interest n various sources, and domestic production increased rapidly. At the close of the war, resumption of shipments from Germany and other sources reduced prices to below pre-war levels, and, as a result, most of the domestic producers ceased operational.]

Jan 1, 1941

[In selecting deposits for exploration projects, tabular deposits or large mineralized masses are favored because they may be explored systematically and because they afford the best opportunity for blocking out reserves in advance of mining whereas irregular, small pipes and scattered]

Jan 1, 1941

By G. W. Imholz

A number of interesting wells were drilled in north central Texas during 1940. The Shell Oil Company's Smith well in scc. 143, block I, H. and T. C. survey, Stonewall County, was completed for an initial production of 581 bbl. per day from the Mississippian limestone, with a total depth of 6065 ft. The same company's Patterson well, sec. 393, block D. H. and T. C. survey, Stonewall County, tested the Ellenburger limestone and was abandoned as a dry hole with a total depth of 6760 feet. In Nolan County the Tex-Harvey Oil Co. drilled a well in sec. 43, near the Tipton well, which was completed as a small producer in the Strawn section. The Tex-Harvey well tested this producing horizon but was abandoned as a dry hole with a total depth of 5210 feet. The Montour-Haggart well, sec. 184, block 2, H. and T. C. survey, Fisher County, tested the Strawn and was abandoned with a total depth of 5664 feet. The Georgian Oil Company's Blach, sec. 309, T. R. and L.. Shackelford County, encountered the top of the Ellenburger limestone at 4725 ft. After being plugged back to 3915 It. from a total depth of 4825 ft., the well tested 10 bbl, of oil per day and 300 bbl. of water. The W. I. Sothern No. 2 Carlisle well in sec. 293 was deepened to the Cambrian. The top of the Ellenburger was encountered at 6540 fcet. A wildcat well in Fisher County, the E. A. Stephenson-Maberry, apparently opened a new pool when the well encountered sand from 3298 lo 3302 ft. and was completed for 50 bbl. per day in the Cook sand horizon. In Jones County, the King Oil Company's Olsen well, sec. 158, B. B. B. and C. survey, extended the Avoca-Olander pool. The well was completed for 263 bbl. in 8 1/2 hr. from the Palo Pinto limestone, from 3298 to 3302 ft. Ungren-Frazier extended the Akard pool with No. I Akard, in the D. 'T. Bruce survey. The well was completed for 83 bbl. per day from the Cook sand, encountered from 2109 to 2126 feet.

Jan 1, 1941

By G. W. Jones

The results presented in this report deal with the elimination of explosion hazards of ether-oxygen mixtures by the addition of helium. The method is based upon the fact that every combustible gas, vapor, or dust will not burn or explode when the oxygen content of the mixture is reduced below certain definite values. These critical oxygen values are usually different for each combustible, varying with the percentage of the combustible present in the mixture and also with the inert gaseous material used to reduce the oxygen content of the mixture.

Jan 1, 1941

By S Bankoff

INCE1 proposed that electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged particles was responsible for slime-coating. Del Giudice2 postulated the metathetic formation of a cementing compound. Wark3 suggested that prevention of slime-coating was related to peptization of the slime. [ ] In the experiments of Table I the technique employed was essentially that of del Giudice, with the difference that the particle was examined under a film of water rather than dry.4 In general, the polished particle was agitated for 2 min. in a pulp consisting of 12.5 grams of the slime (-200 mesh) and 50 c.c. of distilled water, washed in three baths of distilled water, and examined at 220 diameters with the Leitz Ultropak. Observations of Brownian movement were made at 850 diameters with dark-field illumination. Several of these experiments do not jibe with the metathesis theory. According to published solubilities,5,6 the lead salts of the anions in experiments c through g are more insoluble than lead carbonate, there- [ ] fore should prevent the formation of lead carbonate on the galena surface. In experiment i the calcium oxalate, which presumably was on the calcite surfaces, should have permitted the formation of a lead carbonate cement by virtue of its greater solubility. Experiments j through m show that the addition of lime accelerates the deposition of quartz onto a galena surface. The writer is unable to postulate a satisfactory cementing compound, according to the metathesis theory, to explain this effect. These experiments led to the conclusion that the metathetic formation of a cement-

Jan 1, 1941

Jan 1, 1941

By Horace W. Hindry

This paper presents the ingredients composing a type of oil-base mud that has been successfully used in drilling oil horizons in California, the effect of ingredient concentrations on physical properties, methods of handling at the well and possible advantages of a waterless drilling fluid with excellent plastering properties. INTRODUCTION AN oil-base mud is a rotary drilling fluid in which oil has been substituted for water as the principal liquid ingredient. In recent years such a mud has been developed and used successfully for drilling the oil horizons of wells in various California fields. There are several types of oil-base mud, but only the type that is currently used to any appreciable extent will be considered at this time. The oil-base drilling-mud compositions used by Shell Oil Company, Incorporated have been covered by several patent applications on which patents are expected to issue at an early date. The purpose of this paper is to present data on the fundamental design of the mud; the ingredients used and their specifications; the effect of ingredient concentration on physical properties; the selection of the proper mud; the facilities needed for handling the mud; and a general discussion [oil] drilling with oil-base mud. In view of the early stage of development of oil-base mud, the great number of variables, and the almost unlimited possible combinations of these variables, which in turn require extensive laboratory study, there are certain irregularities and omissions in the data presented here. However, it is believed that sufficient data are at hand to permit a fairly complete analysis of the characteristics of oil-base muds. In view of the excellent plastering properties of oil-base mud when properly proportioned, its use should: (I) minimize the possibility of impairing the natural flow potentialities of the producing horizon such as that resulting from infiltration of water from water-base muds; (2) permit smaller clearances for setting liners, since the mud sheath has no appreciable thickness; (3) eliminate the possibility of clogging the perforations of the liner with thick mud sheath; (4) facilitate the removal of the mud sheath from the walls of the hole, for its mud sheath has no appreciable strength; (5) assist in drilling through formations, such as "heaving shale," where water wetting appears to be a source of difficulty. (6) permit cores to be obtained without contamination from drilling water. FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN OF AN OIL-BASE MUD In the design of any rotary drilling mud it is necessary to select materials that will fulfill the following requirements: (I) act as the liquid medium and regulate the viscosity; (2) impart initial and final plastering properties; (3) give gel strength and structure in order to prevent settling; (4) serve as a weighting material. The

Jan 1, 1941

By Hirst H, McAfee J

In December, 1934, Mr. R. Sussex extruded some silver lead alloy wires in order to determine their electrical resistance. After the determinations had been made each wire was threaded through a sheet of paper on which the composition was noted. The wires were placed in a more or less tangled mass in a cupboard in March, 1935. It was not until September, 1936, that they were re-examined, and it was found that during the eighteen months some of the wires had corroded very badly. It was not until March, 1938, that the wires and the corrosion product could be examined, and the results are given in the following pages. It is of interest to note that none of the numerous silver-lead alloys which have been used for creep testing in the rolled condition have shown a similarphenomenon. The silver content of the rolled alloys was, however, never greater than 0·1%.GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE CORRODED WIRESThe wires contained 0·1% up to 28% of silver, and a general examination showed that the corrosion had progressed farther the higher the silver content. This can be seen in Fig. 1, which is a photograph taken in March, 1938, of typical wires at a 'magnification of five diameters. In the early stages the corrosive action seems to be localized and an area of grey, yellow or reddish brown powder appears. The grey corrosion product is by far the one, most frequently seen, and in the later stages the only one visible from the outside. The reddish coloured product is sometimes seen on the residual metallic centre when the grey product has been broken away.The irregular extent of the corrosion can be seen in Fig. 2, which shows (natural size) the 5% silver wire after standing two years. The corroded parts are seen to be much thicker than the slightly corroded ones. The corrosion product, being non-metallic, is quite brittle and falls away from the wire on bending. In the extreme case the' whole wire has corroded and presents a cracked appearance as seen in Fig. 1 (281% silver).An approximate idea of the extent of corrosion can be obtained by measuring the diameter of the corroded part. The original diameter in each case was ·050/ ·051 inches and in Table I are given the diameters of the corroded parts after Hand 3 years respectively. When the diameter...

Jan 1, 1941

By J. E. Owen

EXPERIMENTS on twenty-six drilling muds were carried out in an effort to establish a correlation between the apparent viscosity values for these muds as obtained with the Marsh funnel and the Stormer viscometer. This required a calibration of both instruments in which the density of the calibrating liquids was taken into account. Corresponding to the Marsh-funnel viscosity values that were obtained at 1500 c.c. in, 1 qt. out, equivalent Stormer viscosity values were obtained at a Stormer cylinder test speed of approximately 1100 r.p.m. Further, a linear relation between the logarithms of the Stormer cylinder test speed and the resulting apparent viscosity was found to exist for the muds tested for 200 to 1000 r.p.m. The significance of the slope of this linear relationship is discussed as it applies to the field use of drilling muds. It was concluded that Marsh-funnel viscosity measurements are expressible in absolute units that may be correlated with Stormer viscosity measurements, provided these are made in the manner described in the paper. INTRODUCTION The Marsh funnel is used almost universally to determine the viscosity of drilling muds in the field. The Stormer viscometer is commonly used to determine the viscosity of drilling muds in the laboratory. With the Marsh funnel, the time required for one quart of mud to flow out of the funnel originally filled with 1500 c.c. is often taken as the measurement of viscosity. With the Stormer instrument, drilling mud is tested at a cylinder speed of 600 r.p.m. and by means of calibration data the apparent viscosity is expressed in absolute units. Neither of these instruments is an absolute viscometer, and apparent viscosities obtained with either are influenced by the arbitrarily standardized conditions under which the measurements are made. It is disconcerting to the man in the field to be told that laboratory measurements of the viscosities of a group of muds differ widely, when he has already observed that they have identical viscosities when tested in the Marsh funnel. Drilling muds are not perfect fluids, therefore it is not surprising to find a lack of correlation between the apparent viscosity of a mud as determined with the Marsh funnel and that determined with the Stormer viscometer. The work described here was undertaken to develop a correlation between Marsh-funnel and Stormer viscosity measurements. To a considerable degree this has been accomplished. This study has resulted not only in a better understanding of the two viscosity instruments and the data obtainable from them, but has given considerable information regarding the viscosity characteristics of drilling muds. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Calibration of Harsh Funnel and Stormer Viscometer The first step in the experimental procedure was the calibration of the Marsh funnel and the Stormer viscometer with

Jan 1, 1941

Aalde, Kaare. ('40) Gen'I Del., Bisbee. Ariz. Aase, Glenn D., ('40) Univ. of North Dakota. Grand Forks. N. D. Abadesco, Enrique A., ('39) College of Engrg.. Univ. of the Philippines. Manila, P. I. Abbott. John L., ('40) Colorado School of Mines. Golden. Colo. Abdul-Ahad, A., ('39) Montana School of Mines. Residence Hall, Butte. Mont. Abreu, Ovidio M., ('38) Univ. of Nevada, Reno, Nev. Acomb, Allen. ('41) Louisiana State Univ., Box 1970, University. La. Acosta S., Gonzalo. ('40) Univ. of Texas, Univ. Sta., Box 1785. Austin, Tex. Adam, Howard W., ('41) Montana School of Mines. Butte, Mont. Adams, Albert, ('381 New Mexico School of Mines, Socorro. N. M. Adams. Charles W., ('39) Michigan College of Min. & Tech., Houghton, Mich. Adams. H. Travis, ('39) 316 South -5th St., Bur¬bank. Calif. Adams, Jack L., ('39) Univ. of Oklahoma, Nor¬man. Okla. Adams. John W., ('41) Colorado School of Mines, Golden. Colo. Adams. Lewis J.. ('39) 402 Del Mar Blvd., Corpus Christi, Tex. Adams, Rob L., ('40) Agricultural & Mech. Col¬ lege of Texas. Box 600, College Sta., Tex. Adamson. Charles R., ('41) Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City. Utah.

Jan 1, 1941

By William S. McAleer

Two major trends in the coal industry today focus attention on the need for heat-drying equipment of a simpler, more flexible and less expensive type than has been considered standard equipment for drying coal. These trends are: I. The tremendous growth in the use of mechanical equipment to load coal both in underground mining and strip mining, which necessitates efficient mechanical cleaning of the fine as well as the coarse coal and thus means a growing tonnage of washed fine coal? with its attendant moisture problems. 2. The growing consumer demand for the smaller sizes for use as domestic stoker coal, with increasingly rigid specifications covering size, ash, and moisture analyses. ACCEPTED PRACTICE In the past, when, for example, 4 in. too coal has been washed, there was little trouble in producing a washed product 4 to o with a satisfactory resultant moisture. The 4 to 3/8-in. could be taken from dewatering screens at a surface moisture ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 per cent, depending upon the size consist. The 3/8-in. to o coal was generally dewatered satisfactorily with centrifugal driers, to final surface moistures from 5.5 to 8 per cent, again depending upon size consist. The centrifugal type of drier has definitely proved itself to be the most economical type of machine to handle coal approximately 3/8 in. to o as recovered by dewatering screens or drainage elevators with 15 to 25 per cent surface moisture and turn out a product with moistures as stated above. Sometimes such moistures (5.5 to 8.0 per cent) in the product are satisfactory. If not, an ultimate moisture, lower than 3 per cent, is seldom required and the centrifugal drier removes 70 to 85 per cent of the total moisture to be removed. In certain districts there has been a growing tendency to circumvent the use of centrifugals or other types of driers, by dewatering over screens of the wedge wire type and wasting all the finer sizes. Sometimes all the minus 28-mesh has been wasted and often the size wasted has been as large as 1/8-in. By wasting these finer sizes, a lower moisture can be obtained in the finished product, but taking into account the cost of the tonnage so lost, plus the added cost of ultimately disposing of this wasted tonnage, often the cost will be greater than the cost of heat-drying in a modern plant, which makes possible the recovery of all the tonnage. Moreover, with the moisture standards for domestic stoker equipment even these wasteful approaches to its solution do not solve the problem and there remains only the alternative of heat-drying. HEAT-DRYING Until about four years ago, heat-drying of coal at the preparation plants was confined chiefly to drying the fine sizes (approximately 3/8 in. to 0). Occasional

Jan 1, 1941

By Karl Fetters, John Chipman

The relationship between the composition of the slag and that of the underlying metal during the refining of a heat of liquid steel may best be studied in the light of the two broad physicochemical concepts of equilibrium and reaction rate. Actual steel-making processes, typified by basic open-hearth practice, involve such complexities of operating variables that it is impossible to distinguish with any degree of certainty between the general limiting conditions imposed by chemical equilibrium and the effects associated with rates of diffusion or of chemical reaction. Further advances in the physical chemistry of steelmaking will depend upon our ability to distinguish clearly between these two kinds of effects, and the experimental work that must be done falls naturally into two classifications. The first is the study of chemical equilibrium that cannot be carried out with assurance under operating conditions but must be done in the laboratory. The second is the -subject of rates of reaction and diffusion and the mechanism of the process as a whole, which can best be studied under operating conditions. The latter is not entirely independent of the former, since its interpretation often requires a knowledge of the equilibrium state. It is the purpose of this and of several papers that will follow to present the results of labora- tory investigations of equilibria involving liquid steel and slag. Open-hearth slag is a complex mixture containing at least eight major components and perhaps twice as many whose influence may be classified as probably minor. It is not surprising that progress toward a complete understanding of such a material at high temperatures has been slow. Attempts to apply the established principles of physical chemistry to the behavior of the individual components of this mixture have been beset by an almost complete lack of data on its chemical properties in the liquid state. This has necessitated the adoption of various methods of approximation based upon such assumptions as, for example, that for a given component the ratio of its mol fraction in the slag to that in the metal is a constant, or that the molecular composition of the liquid slag is the same as its crystalline constitution after solidification. From the thermo-dynamic viewpoint, such assumptions are merely useful dodges, which enable one to hazard a guess as to the magnitude of the more fundamental quantities, the chemical potentials and activities of the components of slag. The problem of determining the activity of each substance in an eight-component svstem seems too complex to be undertaken without the aid of generalizations derived from experimental data on similar systems containing a smaller number of components. Accordingly, it was planned in the present investigation to study the equilibrium of molten iron with the simplest

Jan 1, 1941

YEAR OF ELECTION 1913. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, Montreal, Canada. 1933. KARL EIKERS New York, N. Y. 1922. FEDERICO GIOLITTI Torino, Italy. 1906. SIR ROBERT A. HADFIELD London, England. 1921. FRANK WILLIAM HARBORD London, England. 1917. HERBERT HOOVER Washington, D. C. 1941. DANIEL COWAN JACKLING San Francisco, Calif. 1939. HENRY KRUMB New York, N. Y. 1921. C. McDERMID London, England. 1913. EZEQUIEL ORDONEZ Mexico City, Mexico. 1935. ROBERT PEELE New York, N. Y. 1938. A.M. PORTEVIN Paris France 1937. JOHN V.W. REYNDERS, New York, N. Y. 1937. GEORGE S. RICE Washington, D. C. 1911. ROBERT H. RICHARDS Cambridge, Mass. 1934. T.A. RICKARD Victoria, B.C., Canada

Jan 1, 1941

By Don B. Carson, Donald L. Katz

NATURAL gases under pressure form crystal-line hydrates with water. Experimental data are reported on four-phase equilibrium for the methane-propane-water, methane-pentane-water, and methane-hexane-water systems. Temperatures and pressures for equilibrium between gas, water-rich liquid, hydrocarbonrich liquid, and hydrate were measured, as well as the percentages of methane and propane in the hydrate. The data indicate that natural gas hydrate behaves as a solid solution and that pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons do not enter into the solid phase. Vapor-solid equilibrium constants are presented that permit the approximation of the conditions for hydrate formation, from the composition of a gas. INTRODUCTION Natural gas hydrates have been the object of considerable research in recent years, because of the trouble they have caused in the natural-gas and natural gasoline industries. Natural gas hydrates are white crystalline compounds of water and gas, which, under pressure, exist at temperatures considerably above the freezing point of water. Because of the relatively high temperatures at which the hydrates exist, they become a nuisance in high-pressure gas operations where water is present, since their formation causes partial or complete plugging of valves and pipes. From a practical standpoint, the trouble incident to hydrate formation has been solved by dehydration of the gas before it enters the plant or pipe line, or by other remedial measures. Extensive work on gas hydrates in the latter part of the nineteenth century, by Villard1 and others, gave data on methane hydrate and on ethane hydrate. Schroeder summarized these theoretical studies.2 Hammerschmidt3 introduced the information on gas hydrates to the gas industry and Deaton and Frost4-6 gathered a considerable number of data on the behavior of natural gas hydrates. Recent papers7,8 have extended both the data and the theory of these hydrates. At present, data are available on temperatures and pressures of hydrate formation for pure methane, ethane, propane, n-butane, methane-ethane mixtures, methane-propane mixtures, methane-butane mixtures, and some 15 natural gases, all in the presence of excess water. However, up to the present time no method has been available for predicting the temperature at given pressures or the pressure at given temperatures at which natural gases will form hydrates if saturated with water. This paper pre¬sents data on the methane-propane-water, methane-pentane-water and methane-hexane water systems in four phases, one of which is the hydrate. The application of the phase rule to the methane-propane-water data proves that hydrates behave as solid solutions. The data of this paper and those in the literature were used to develop vapor-solid equilibrium constants,8 which permit prediction of conditions of hydrate formation from the analysis of a natural gas.

Jan 1, 1941

By Stanley Reichert

The manganese deposits of the Embree Iron Co., Embreeville, Tenn., are thought to be fairly typical and representative of the East Tennessee type of deposit, and so to warrent rather detailed description. The methods used by the Embree Iron Co. for prospecting and mining, and to a lesser extent for milling; should therefore be applicable to other East Tennessee manganese deposits, as yet' undeveloped. Early History and Discovery of Manganese Brown iron ore (limonite) was mined by the Embree Iron Co. at various times from 1890 to 1910. The early method was simply pick-and-shovel mining in open pits. Later hydraulic giants were used and sluice lines carried the ore down the mountain slopes to log washers.. During this phase of mining, manganese ore was discovered under the iron ore in some of the pits. In other areas oxidized zinc ore was found under the iron. It thus happened that the valuable zinc deposits were discovered in 1914. During the World War period, from 1914 to 1918, there was sporadic prospecting for manganese ore among the abandoned iron workings, but the main activity then centered around the recently discovered lead and zinc deposits. It was not until 1934 that manganese mining began in earnest, under the supervision of R. D. Pritchett, Mine Superintendent. Geology of the Manganese Deposits United States Geological Survey Folios 151 (Roan Mountain) and 118 (Greeneville show that Bumpass Cove is a synclinal structure thrust faulted along the southeast flank, but with normal sequence of strata along the northwest flank. Fig, l. shows the areal geology of Bumpass Cove as taken from the folios superposed on the U.S.G.S. -T.V.A. 1/24,000 topographic maps of the Erwin and Telford 7 ½ minute sheets. The manganese mines occur near the contact of the unfaulted Shady dolomite and the Erwin quartzite. This contact zone is deeply weathered, with overburden averaging 40 to 60 ft. thick. The material overlying' the bedrock along this normal contact is a very tough, plastic clay, termed "buckfat" or "ocher" by the miners. It is not a true ocher, however, in the sense of having commercial value. The manganese deposits occur along this "ocher" band. Fig. 1 also shows how the manganese deposits occur along the broad topographic terrace between the 2100 and 2200-ft. contour lines. This terrace lies at the foot the Erwin quartz ridge. Apparently it is the topographic is expression of the deeply weathered zone along the Shady-Erwin contact.

Jan 1, 1941

By H. H. Bleakney

THIS paper presents evidence that in 3 1/2% nickel steel, the published temperature for the Ac1 transformation, l,275°F., represents the completion of that transformation, and that its inception occurs approximately 275°F. lower, at about l,000°F. The formation of austenite within this range, especially at the higher temperatures, and its subsequent decomposition to martensite, results in considerable impairment of the properties of the steel. That the solid solution found to occur below l,275°F. is austenite has been questioned, but the evidence herewith presented, while not decisive, appears to be reasonably convincing. INTRODUCTION The February, 1939, issue of Metals Technology contains a very interesting paper by I. N. Zavarine, Associate Professor of Metallurgical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In that paper, Professor Zavarine presented photomicrographs illustrative of the microstructures produced by heating nickel steels to a temperature slightly below the carbon change point, and holding them at that temperature for various lengths of time. His illustrations show that the structures found after such treatment do not consist merely of ferrite and carbides, but are characterized by the presence of a third phase, which he describes as a' 'sub-critical solid solution'. The occurrence of this third phase in increasing amounts is accompanied by an increase in strength and a loss of ductility and impairment of elastic ratio of the steel. Some years ago, one of the authors encountered the above-mentioned phenomenon in treating large forgings of 3.5% nickel steel. After normalizing and then drawing at l,250°F., very poor mechanical properties were obtained. Investigation of the steel disclosed no inferiority in quality. Eventually, after considerable waste of time and money, a draw temperature of l,150°F. was tried. This treatment resulted in a very great increase in elastic ratio, over 5 per cent increase in percentage elongation, and proportionate improvement in reduction of area.

Jan 1, 1941

By George M. Straughan, Coleman D. Hunter

Oil and gas development as well as extensive leasing in Kentucky during 1940 has shown a marked improvement over the past three years.$ The most noticeable improvement is the gas development in eastern Kentucky and the deep tests being drilled by major oil interests. In western Kentucky, 406 wells were drilled, of which 173 were oil producers, 12 were gas wells and 221 were dry or abandoned. The number of dry tests was large, because no important, new oil or gas pool was discovered and many of the dry holes could be considered wildcat tests. However, with either oil or gas possibilities from Pennsylvanian formations on through Mississippian, Silurian, Devonian, and Ordovician, this percentage of dry holes seems rather high. Many of the dry tests possibly should have been tested in deeper horizons before being abandoned: namely, Silurian and Ordovician ages. In eastern Kentucky, 213 wells were drilled, of which 113 were gas producers, 61 were oil wells, and 39 were dry holes. Of these wells, 117 were drilled in the most important Big Sandy gas field, in Floyd, Pike, Knott and Martin Counties, and of this number 103 were gas producers, 5 were oil wells, and 9 were dry holes. In the Big Sinking oil field of Estill, Lee and Powell Counties, 70 of the remaining 96 wells were drilled, j6 being oil producers. During 1940, four deep tests were drilled in eastern Kentucky. One test penetrated the Knox dolomite in Knox County and was dry; no St. Peter sand was encountered. Another test in Lee County had some gas in what might be called St. Peter sand, according to the State Department, and also some gas deeper in the Knox dolomite. In Wolfe County, a small oil well was completed in the Ordovician, which was undoubtedly of Trenton age. ilt the present time, four deep tests are being drilled, all of which will go to the Knox dolomite. In Elliott County, on the Burke dome, the Inland Gas Co, is drilling at 3650 ft. In Magoffin County, on the Paint Creek uplift, the Cumberland Petroleum Co. is drilling at 3800 ft. In Clark County, in the Ruckerville fault area, W. 0. Allen is drilling at 1800 ft. In Laurel County, on the Sinking Creek dome, the Globe Oil and Gas Co. is drilling at I750 ft. If production is encountered in the Trenton, St. Peter, or Knox dolomite in any of these tests, eastern Kentucky will experience a marked increase in deep development.

Jan 1, 1941

By J. B. Macelwane

GEOPHYSICS differs from geology and physics in many respects. In the first place, geophysics is a complex science embracing the fields of seismology, geomagnetism, geoelectricity, geodesy, meteorology, volcanology, physical oceanography, physical hydrology, tectonophysics and exploration geophysics. Geology is also a complex science and so extensive in its various fields that no one can master them all, and no part of geology deals in any sense with several of these fields of geophysics. In the second place, geophysics makes use of methods and instruments that are derived primarily from the science of physics. Geology, on the other hand, has methods of its own and it draws its borrowed techniques and its instrumental equipment not only from physics but also and perhaps primarily from chemistry and biology. The difference, therefore, between the geophysicist and the geologist lies partly in the phenomena that are observed, partly in the methods and instruments with which each carries on his exploration; but partly also, and perhaps principally, in the habitual attitude of mind and in the background of specialized training with which each approaches the problems presented by this planet of ours. The geologist as such, therefore, is no geophysicist. On the other hand, the physicist is not a geophysicist either. Isolation of each problem in a closed laboratory system under complete control is fundamental to the methods of the physicist. The geophysicist must apply physical instruments and physicomathematical reasoning to the study of physical quantities in their undisturbed natural environment. What, then, is a geophysicist? In the sense that he is a trained expert in all of the geophysical sciences, I do not believe that such a person ever existed. It would be beyond the possibilities of a single lifetime. I think there is confusion in our ideas and in our use of terms. We are not all thinking of the same thing when we say geophysics or geophysicist; yet we seem to talk as though we were. It is as absurd to say that the whole of geophysics belongs to geology because the field of a particular type of geophysicist-the exploration geophysicist -calls for some knowledge of geology as it would be to say that the whole of biology belongs to geology because a particular type of biologist-the paleontologistneeds some knowledge of geology. DEVELOPMENT OF A GEOPHYSICIST Since it is impossible to become an expert in all the fields of geophysics, and since students entering college seldom know the field they will choose as a career, what would we suggest as the best general preparation for work in geophysics, whether as a meteorologist, an oceanographer, a seismologist, a geodesist, a geomagneticist, a volcanologist, a tectonophysicist, a hydrologist, or an exploration geophysicist? We may distinguish five phases in the development of a geophysicist: (I) his mathematical and scientific studies in high school; (2) the general mathematical and scientific

Jan 1, 1941

By John R. Bradley

The available supply of fuel and power is a subject of importance at all times and particularly at this time. The following brief survey of fuel and power in the United States appraises the extent of the several primary sources of energy the approximate monthly demand, 1929-40; the chief centers of production and consumption; and shifts in the principal uses from 1929 to recent years. The period covers the boom year 1929, the years of the great depression, the more normal year 1937, the recession in 1938, the year 1939, and 1940 (which was affected by armament programs). In some instances, the data for 1939 and 1940 are preliminary. The four primary sources of fuel and power are coal, petroleum, natural gas, and water power. Wood fuel, important in some regions, and foreign trade in natural gas and hydroelectricity represent a relatively small part of the energy supply and are not considered in this study. The tonnages shown are in terms of coal, based upon the calorific or B. t. u. equivalents of the several sources of power. In practice, the usable heat or energy varies according to the type of equipment available for its use. For example, the efficiency of turbine water wheels and internal-combustion engines is much higher than that of steam plants and household-heating devices.

Jan 1, 1941