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This paper sets out to consider a specific type of corrosion protection system, which is referred to as a Duplex Coating system. The dictionary describes a duplex system as consisting of two elements or a “twofold” composition. The duplex system described in this presentation is such a two-part corrosion protection coating, viz, hot dip galvanizing as the firm base or primer, followed by a top paint system designed to combat severe corrosive environmental conditions encountered in nature. In principle, the duplex system is a cost effective and balanced, designed coating that is suited to the environmental conditions and service life requirements.

Jan 1, 2009

By Sergio N. Monteiro

Jute fabric obtained from discarded sackcloth is a promising low cost and post-used material being considered as reinforcement of polymeric matrix composites. In particular, the combination of this fabric with a recycled plastic constitutes an environmentally correct composite with both economical and environmental advantages. The present work investigates the toughness of recycled polyethylene composites reinforced with up to 40 wt% of post-used jute fabric extracted from discarded sackcloth. Standard Izod notched specimens were impact tested and the results showed an increase in toughness with the amount of jute fabric. Observation of the composite fracture by SEM revealed that the fabric weave, in spite of damages caused by the previous use of the sackcloth, act as an effective obstacle to crack propagation.

Jan 1, 2009

By Jewel Gomes

Produced water (PW) is salty water trapped in the reservoir rock and brought up along with oil or gas during production. It subsists under high pressures and temperatures, and usually contains hydrocarbons and metals. Therefore, it must be treated before being discharged to surface water. Different techniques are being used to treat PW through phase separations, system control and design, and chemical treatments. In this paper, we discuss our experimental results on treating PW through electrocoagulation (EC). The performance of EC was investigated for the reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and metal ions. Effects of different electrodes, residence time, current density, and pH were also studied to optimize the treatment conditions. Different kinds of cleansing agents, such as lime and borax were used to break the buffering effect encountered during treatment. FTIR, SEM/EDS, and XRD were used to characterize the EC-floc and thus to elucidate removal mechanisms.

Jan 1, 2009

Rio Tinto Iron Ore (RTIO) manages eleven mines in the Pilbara region, Western Australia. Three of these mines have previously or are currently mining black shale that contains varying amounts of pyrite. Several new deposits currently being evaluated and existing mines that may progress below water table in the future, will also encounter this waste material. The black shale presents not just an acid rock drainage risk but also a spontaneous combustion risk. This paper presents the black shale management strategy and provides an overview of the relevant activities undertaken by RTIO. The strategy can be divided into two components which firstly involve defining the risk and secondly involve managing the risk. The mineral waste management plan is used to identify specific mineral waste hazards by:geochemical characterisation of waste material,undertaking mine site specific risk assessments,characterising the receiving environment,identifying sulfidic boundaries in geological and mining models,quantifying the amount of sulfidic material in medium and long-term mine plans, anddesigning and sequencing black shale waste dumps. Once a mine exposes black shale the Spontaneous Combustion and Acid Rock Drainage management plan is used and the major activities are: regular site meetings with a representative from every group that works with black shale;compliance with safe working procedures for site specific and detailed activities;regular training;the use of specific explosives to prevent premature detonation;ongoing geochemical characterisation;acid water management, monitoring and analysis;regular internal and external auditing of procedures and practices; andclosure planning assessments and preparations (ie cover trials, geochemical void modelling, geochemical waste dump modelling). The success of this holistic strategy is evident by the awareness of personnel within the business, thorough understanding of the geochemistry and by undertaking proactive management of black shale during mining. The strategy and management plans adopted by Rio Tinto Iron Ore have activities that other mine sites with potentially acid forming material may like to consider implementing.

Jan 1, 2009

By P A. Tilyard

There have been enormous changes in mineral processing in the past four decades. For example grinding mill power has increased by an order of magnitude, regrinding is done to -10 microns and flotation machines are 100 times bigger. Operating staff have unprecedented opportunities for online monitoring and performance control of mineral processing plants. Sophisticated instruments can provide a plethora of data characterising the mineralogy and surfaces of particles. Digital computers allow complex calculations on huge amounts of data including modelling and simulation of machine and plant performance. However, all these changes have not necessarily lead to better metallurgical results. An analogy can be drawn with the thoroughbred racing industry in Australia. Significant advances in scientific knowledge in animal genetics, physiology, biomechanics and nutrition applied to the business have resulted in only a two per cent reduction in winning times for the Melbourne Cup and Caulfield Cup since the 1920s. A critical look at some mineral processing metrics suggests similar failures to improve performance despite putting in more resources. In fact certain parameters such as operating times and plant start-up performance are considered to have remained static or even deteriorated. There has been an emphasis on 'process' at the expense of 'outcomes'. The industry's strength has been in finding technical (or 'hardware') solutions while its weakness has been at the people end of the business in maximising and consolidating the gains from the technologies. Some trends in plant design over these years have exacerbated the apparent deskilling of operating and technical staff. Despite unparalleled options for communications, some staff are embarrassingly uninformed about technical developments in their fields. The 'boom and bust' cycles of the industry, together with trends in tertiary education and the effects of fly-in, fly-out (FIFO) operations, raise serious questions about the sustainability of human capital in the mineral processing sector. This paper by two experienced mineral processing engineers, with contributions from other senior practitioners, reviews these trends. While there may be an element of 'the older we are, the better we were', it is an attempt to identify the issues and propose solutions.

Jan 1, 2009

Many young mining engineers do not consider consulting as a possible job, believing that many years of working on-site is required to achieve practical experience, develop expertise and acquire industry contacts. However, mining consultancies employ engineers with varying levels of experience, including part-time university students, graduates and engineers who are relatively new to the industry. This paper outlines the role of a young engineer in a large mining consultancy and the benefits to both the consultancy and the client of having a mix of consultants with a diverse range of experience. From the authorÆs perspective, the work experience, lifestyle and rewards of mine consulting are compared to site based work, including a discussion on whether consulting is able to offer the professional development that a young engineer needs.

Jan 1, 2009

By S. W. Marcuson

Smelting of nickel-copper sulfide ores at Vale Inco’s Sudbury operations commenced in 1888 and the first converting plant went into operation in 1892. As the demand for nickel grew, the smelting operations expanded and by the 1960’s the Copper Cliff Smelter featured the longest converter aisle in the world with space for nineteen Peirce-Smith converters. During this long period, different converting techniques and vessels were employed. The evolution of converting is reviewed with special emphasis on the modifications made to the Peirce-Smith vessel to accommodate the metallurgical and process needs of the changing times.

Jan 1, 2009

Since the days of Adam Smith and Milton Friedman the discussion of corporate citizenship and sustainability has been flooded with multiple contradictions, with proponents of sustainability saying that it is a crucial cog in the business strategy, while those against, maintain that æthe business of business is businessÆ and therefore sustainability issues are just add-ons. Sustainability arises from a deeply held vision by corporate leaders that businesses can and should play a role beyond just making money. Businesses should embrace the understanding that everything that a company does has an impact both internally and externally (communities, employees and customers), and the natural environment. This paper highlights the approach that led to a view that there is a contradiction between profitability, sustainability and community development, and we provide a further argument to the contrary. This argument is based on a comprehensive literature review of over three decades by various scholars linking corporate social performance and corporate financial performance. Driefontein Gold MineÆs approach is that of linking the community development, natural environmental and employee well-being initiatives and projects to the mineÆs business strategy. The paper further highlights the coordination and implementation mechanism of sustainability at the mine where the accountability lies with the head of the mine operations. A two pronged approach is employed where there is an internal dialogue on sustainability between the various departments coordinated by the sustainable development department and an external tri-sector partnership with local government, interested and affected parties and the mine. These approaches are closely linked to the contributions towards the mineÆs financial bottom line.

Jan 1, 2009

People in economically developed societies demonstrate inherent human care for Earth and want to stop pollution. Yet efforts to clean Earth seem bogged in confusion from wildly contradictory and alarmist predictions of æclimate crisisÆ. Supposed experts openly disagree yet weÆre told thereÆs universal agreement humans are causing æthe end of life as we know itÆ. The turmoil combines with peopleÆs feelings of fear, guilt, anger, hopelessness and even resignation and apathy to trigger æclimate alarmÆ. The paper enables people to rediscover clarity, hope and support for Earth by understanding how climate alarm and confusion were created and how they actually increase pollution. Many people seem to think global warming is as serious as pollution and worry that questioning alarm will enable pollution. Yet theyÆre different. We need be even more concerned about climate alarm because history shows repeatedly that when buried by ignorance and panic real problems grow overwhelming. Environmental credibility is endangered by confused politicians and sensationalist media. When weÆre willing to re-evaluate what weÆve been told we replace fear and confusion with facts and freedom to identify opportunities. Combining this with practical understanding of human behaviour and leadership enables opportunities to be identified and action taken. The paper shows how confident, informed leadership leads and supports higher productivity and effective care for the natural environment.

Jan 1, 2009

By J OÆDriscoll, R Butler, L Winter

The iron ore mining district of Labrador West and adjacent Quebec is Canada's largest iron ore producer with almost 50 years of production. The area is currently experiencing a period of renewed activity not seen in decades that includes new mine development, mine expansion and exploration for new iron ore resources. All of the past and present production and exploration programs in the district are centred on the Lower Proterozoic Superior-type iron formations of the Knob Lake Group, located within the Grenville tectonic province of the Canadian Shield. The Knob Lake Group is a continental margin sedimentary sequence which was deformed and subjected to greenschist to upper amphibolite facies metamorphism during the Grenville orogeny. Regional deformation and metamorphism plays a key role in making the iron formation of the Knob Lake Group economic. The distribution of orebodies in the district is controlled by superimposed F1/F2 synclines which causes thickening of the iron formation through repetition. Ore mineralogy consists of specular haematite, magnetite and locally martite with quartz as the major gangue mineral. Regional metamorphism has caused an increase in grain size of the ore minerals making it more amenable to concentrating and pelletising. Altius has been active in Labrador West since 2003 and is now the second largest licence holder in the district with several iron ore exploration projects. The Kamistiatusset project is located in the heart of the region's transportation, power and mining infrastructure. The property has seen limited previous exploration, but covers several significant iron ore prospects. Work by Altius includes a helicopter-borne magnetic survey, ground magnetic and gravity surveys, geological mapping, sampling and 6000 m of diamond core drilling all of which confirm both a favourable geologic setting and ore mineralogy.

Jan 1, 2009

In view of the increasing environmental regulations that have been promulgated all over the world in the last 30 years, non-ferrous smelters and refineries have learnt and adapted to treat effectively metals'-containing process waste streams that need to be bled from the plant. However, anions such as sulfates, chlorides and fluorides-presently not a major problem ?are coming under increasing scrutiny and need to be addressed in the near future. The current paper reviews options for waste water treatment with reference to: a) types of waste streams processed b) process chemistry c) discharge options d) recovery and reuse of water and e) solids disposal. Methods to obtain zero liquid discharge ?a possible solution to eliminate discharge of above anions and residual heavy metals- are discussed with case studies. The long term goal of any non-ferrous smelter plant should be to have a zero liquid discharge philosophy-an approach that would become an epitome of water reuse and conservation.

Jan 1, 2009

By Y Yang, J Skrypniuk

The Jinfeng mine is Sino Gold's flagship project and is the second largest gold mine in China. Sino Gold Limited (SGL) holds 82 per cent equity in the Sino-Foreign joint venture Sino Guizhou Jinfeng Mining Limited (SGJML) with a Chinese partner. Jinfeng is located in a relatively remote site in southwestern Guizhou province. The orebody is considered to be the largest known Carlin type deposit in China. Jinfeng Plant has the world's third largest BIOX« bacterial oxidation facilities (790 t/d), treating highly refractory concentrate generated from crushing, semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) and ball milling and bulk sulfide flotation operations. The Jinfeng Plant construction started in February 2005, commissioning was completed in April 2007, and commercial gold production was achieved in September 2007. This paper describes the successful operations of Jinfeng Plant over the last two years. The key events of the project development are described, from the project background and process design, through to the commissioning and achieving design mill throughput of 3600 t/d resulting 180 000 ounces of gold per year. Process aspects of the BIOX« and carbon-in-leach (CIL) operations over the last two years are discussed which illustrate a very high BIOX« oxidation rate (more that 97 per cent) and excellent CIL recovery (more than 96 per cent). The management of the Jinfeng plant CIL tailings detoxification and filtration is described, and Jinfeng has became the first BIOX« processing plant to have achieved dry stacking of detoxified and pressure filtered CIL tailings. Current efforts to recover cyanide from CIL detoxified solution and the achievement of a zero discharge site water balance are also introduced. Many improvement projects have been made over the last two years which have culminated in a 15 per cent increase in mill throughput over the design and BIOX« CIL recovery increasing from 92.5 per cent to 96 per cent. Significant operating cost reductions from lowered of acid, lime and cyanide usage through process modifications and technical innovations are discussed.

Jan 1, 2009

By I. Demers, A. Blier, M. Mbonimpa, M. Benzaazoua, B. Bussière

The Doyon Mine in Quebec, Canada, evaluates the possibility of desulfurizing its tailings to produce material to be used as cover for the acid-generating tailings disposal site. Laboratory tests showed that a single-layer cover made of desulfurized tailings placed over reactive tailings can prevent the generation of acid mine drainage. Modeling with the software Vadose/W was used to optimize the design parameters, namely, cover thickness, water table position and residual sulfide content of desulfurized tailings following laboratory work. It was found that the optimal configuration includes a 1-m (3.3-ft) desulfurized tailings cover containing 0.8% S, with the water table kept at the interface between the reactive tailings and the cover. To maintain the cover performance to reduce oxygen flux toward acid-generating tailings even in the event of a long dry period, a sand layer is suggested to protect the cover from excessive evaporation. It is possible to reach the environmental objective for oxygen flux chosen for the Doyon Mine (10 mol/ m2/year) with the protective sand layer, even in extremely dry conditions.

Jan 1, 2009

By C. Pritchard

John Marks said in his acceptance of the Hartman Award in 2008, “I guess that without the occasional complaint, your mine is probably over-ventilated” (Marks, 2008). Miners are seldom in this situation and spend much of the time trying to find enough air to keep an operation running. With examination, there are usually changes that can be made to increase the efficiency of ventilation systems. Mine ventilation air is a costly commodity, especially by the time it has been heated or cooled and moved to the bottom of the shaft and through the mine airways. Modifications that result in surplus mine ventilation air could bring financial and environmental benefits. Some issues mine operators have needed to address recently are increased airflow requirements to dilute diesel particulates in metal and nonmetal mines, to ventilate reserves that are deeper, hotter, and further away from fans and shafts, and to meet demands from increased production. This paper discusses successful methods to find additional usable air when there is no extra ventilation capacity. Most of the options presented in this paper are useful for metal/ nonmetal operations but some may be applicable to coal as well.

Jan 1, 2009

By M. K. Larson, J. K. Whyatt

Proper employment of numerical stress analysis design tools is based on the demonstrated ability of a model to capture key elements of the geologic site model and accurately simulate how these elements interact with a mine design. While these tools have progressed markedly, they are, at heart, a gross simplification of the abundant complexity of a natural setting and its response to mining. A generic deep longwall site model was developed that includes aspects of the geology of deep coal mines in the Wasatch Plateau and Book Cliffs coal fields of Utah. The site model contains a set of common features and observations of how these features typically respond to mining. This site model was the basis for evaluating use of empirical, boundary element and volume element stress analysis tools to analyze the distribution of stress around a deep longwall panel. More specifically, this evaluation examined shifting of stress to panel abutments and gob, distribution of stress in the abutment and deformation and failure of bridging strata. Measurements of abutment stress changes at two sites in the Wasatch Plateau region were used to illustrate model calibration. Overall, these comparisons highlight the considerable differences between methods. Volume element tools can incorporate considerable detail and have fewer underlying assumptions, but this detail carries a considerable computational cost. Boundary element tools are much more efficient. However, this efficiency comes at the cost of added assumptions. These assumptions were challenged by the presence of a strong sandstone unit in the overburden, leading to boundary element results that depart significantly from volume element results. Empirical rules are the simplest, but are even more burdened by assumptions, many of which are implicit in underlying cases. Insight into the nature and impact of underlying assumptions in each method is essential to the proper use of results in mine design.

Jan 1, 2009

By C. Sun

The Leeville underground mine has been in operation since 2006 and currently produces 2,903 t (3,200 st) of ore per day, with an average gold grade of 0.4 opt. The mine’s horizontal extent is large, 762 by 152 m (2,500 by 500 ft), while its vertical extent is 6 to 61 m (20 to 200 ft). A high density of joints occurs within the host rock. Based on rock mass rating and field observation, the ground conditions at Leeville can be characterized as poor to very poor. As such, heavy ground support is required for its mining operation. Ore zones with a height in excess of 10 m (35 ft) are considered for longhole stoping. A typical stope measures 6 m (20 ft) wide, 30 to 55 m (100 to 180 ft) long, depending on the ground conditions, and 10 to 30 m (35 to 100 ft) high, depending the thickness of the ore body, yielding 9,100 to 18,000 t (10,000 to 20,000 st) when completed. Narrow ore zones, less than 10 m (35 ft), are mined using cut and fill. Drifts at the Leeville Mine are 4.6 m (15 ft) wide by 4.6 m (15 ft) high. Because of poor ground conditions at this mine, the establishment of a ground control monitoring system is key to operating both safely and successfully. This monitoring system is composed of comprehensive instrument design and installation. Instruments include multi-point borehole extensometers (MPBX) and “stretch measurement to assess reinforcement tension” (SMART) cables. The monitoring system covers the mining zones and infrastructure openings. After about two years’ application and measurement, useful data has been collected and continues to be collected; this information will be used to design future stopes and infrastructure. The system makes engineering and operation teams able to do their job with more confidence and efficiency.

Jan 1, 2009

By W. R. Reed, J. D. Potts

This study tests the ability of a new air nozzle system, located under the drill deck shroud, to improve the dust capture of the drill deck shroud. The system consists of three air nozzles supplied with regulated pressurized air and located midway down the shroud in the off-inlet corners of the shroud. Laboratory testing produced operating curves for the system that showed an optimum operating point of 207 kPa (30 psi) and generated respirable dust reductions of 48% to 52% from the drill deck shroud.

Jan 1, 2009

By Emily Wortman-Wunder

As the 2009 president of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., I am pleased to present the 2009 issue of Transactions of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Vol. 326. A significant portion of the contribution that we as a society make is the publication of professional and technical papers that contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge and information transfer. Communication within the mining community is the key to a successful society. Through the information-transfer mechanisms of books, magazines, meetings and electronic media, the technology exchange that is fundamental to the existence of the Society is accomplished. This technology exchange continues a tradition that dates back to the 1871 meeting of 22 mining engineers in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, that resulted in the founding of AIME; those individuals envisioned that these transaction volumes “would form a most valuable and greatly needed addition to our professional literature.” This volume certainly satisfies that intent. In keeping with SME’s tradition of promoting technological developments while honoring the past, the 2009 Transactions represents an important milestone. It is the last Transactions to appear as a bound volume. Future volumes will appear as e-books only, with some of the Transactions-only papers appearing online prior to the ebook (exactly what form the new Transactions will take is still in development). The decision to go to an all-digital format for this longstanding publication was a difficult one, but one which we hope will better serve the mining community, especially our international members. This 2009 Transactions of SME, Vol. 326, contains a total of 73 technical papers (510 pages), including all 23 papers (136 pages) that were published in 2009 in the Technical Papers Section of Mining Engineering magazine (Vol. 61) and all 32 papers (232 pages) that were published in 2009 in Minerals & Metallurgical Processing (Vol. 26). In addition, this volume contains 18 papers (142 pages) that are being published for the first time in this issue. The papers presented in this volume were written by some of the most distinguished professionals in the industry worldwide. All 73 technical papers were peer-reviewed and approved. The process of review and publication requires much hard work by authors, reviewers and publications staff. As the 2009 president of SME and on behalf of our members, I would like to extend our gratitude to all whose efforts contributed to the publication of this volume.

Jan 1, 2009

By J. C. Squire, E. W. Baker, G. A. Sullivan, G. W. Flathers

A mine collapse severs communication with trapped miners. Landlines are crushed and commercially available radios cannot penetrate hundreds of feet of dense, conductive earth without the use of regenerative repeaters that may also be crushed. This paper describes a proof-of-concept device that uses seismic P-waves, instead of radio waves, to allow communication of a code that represents prearranged messages, including the safe haven location identifier, number of people and air quality, from trapped miners to aboveground rescue units. The transmitter designed is about 0.03 m3 (1 ft3) in size and can broadcast for four hours from its 27-kg (60-lb) battery pack. The receiver consists of a geophone and a 2.5-kg (5.5- lb) signal conditioning unit attached to a laptop computer, which displays the communication signal in real time. Testing in a bituminous coal mine with an MSHA representative revealed the device was able to transmit through 271 m (890 ft) of overburden, at 0° and 12° from vertical, using 500 W of power.

Jan 1, 2009

By L. Patts, J. Rohrbaugh

The Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) has received several reports of filters igniting when high-temperature disposable filters were used on non-cooled diesel exhaust systems in underground coal mines. Based on laboratory testing (to determine the ignition temperature of these filters, which were loaded in the field with diesel particulate matter, or DPM), MSHA determined a maximum safe operating temperature for high-temperature disposable filters. When the results of the laboratory filter ignition testing were reported to the Coal Diesel Partnership (comprised of members of the Coal Industry, Labor, NIOSH and MSHA) the Partnership charged NIOSH with investigating the safe use of high-temperature disposable filters. This paper reports on the design, fabrication and testing of a unique exhaust gas cooling device and the ability of this device to successfully lower filter inlet temperatures and thus reduce the potential for fires.

Jan 1, 2009