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By R. B. Berg

Montana sapphires were first discovered in alluvial deposits in the Helena area in 1865 and subsequently were discovered in other alluvial deposits in southwestern Montana and also in a lamprophyre dike at Yogo in central Montana. From about 1900 until the late 1930?s, when synthetic sapphire began to come into widespread industrial use, Montana sapphire mines produced large quantities mainly for watch bearings with lesser production for the gemstone market. The Yogo deposit is now mined for the gemstone market and two of the alluvial deposits are mined to produce sapphires for the fee-sieving of sapphire-bearing gravel and for the direct sale of gemstones. The generally pale-colored sapphires from the alluvial deposits in southwestern Montana are heated to enhance their colors whereas the generally blue sapphires from the Yogo deposit require no treatment. Markets for sapphires from both the alluvial deposits and the Yogo deposit are strong. In spite of reported historic production in excess of 70 tonnes, mineable resources appear to remain at most major deposits. Also abundant untested lamprophyre dikes in central Montana may host sapphires similar to those at the Yogo deposit.

Jan 1, 2009

By John Brennan

The Avalauncher has been an integral tool for avalanche mitigation work for close to 50 years. With their ability to place a kilogram of high explosives up to two thousand meters away, they routinely serve as a short range alternative to military artillery. The Avalauncher’s roots can be traced to a pneumatic baseball pitching machine used by Major League Baseball teams in the United States in the late 1950s. Throughout the decades, many modifications have been made to both the launcher and its projectiles. Current technology has allowed the Avalauncher to attain greater accuracies and operational range. In this paper I plan to cover not only the history of the Avalauncher but also explore its potential future.

Jan 1, 2009

By S. E. Phillipson

Underground mine mapping is a critical component of understanding the controls on ground instability. Many relatively localized examples of ground failure are associated with geologic features, such as faults, joints, compaction zones, or sedimentological transition zones. In contrast, long-running, directional roof falls are associated with regionally directed horizontal stress fields, which are induced by tectonic plate interactions in the earth?s crust. When stress-related features are distinguished from geological features, underground mapping can be an effective method for inferring the direction of horizontal stress at individual mines. Comparisons with data compiled in the World Stress Map confirm that underground mapping can be a valid method for determining the orientation of maximum principal horizontal stress at a variety of scales, ranging from individual mines to an entire mining district or coal basin. Comparisons are presented between the maximum horizontal stress directions inferred by MSHA?s Roof Control Division through underground mapping and the azimuths of maximum horizontal stress in the World Stress Map database for North America?s Pennsylvanian-aged Appalachian, Illinois, Black Warrior, and Arkoma Basin coal fields. The comparison indicates that azimuths are similar for both data sets, even where variations in the direction of horizontal stress are present. It is interpreted that inconsistencies in direction are attributable to near-surface affects such as deeply incised stream valleys, or to fault zones that represent heterogeneities in the crust.

Jan 1, 2009

By Katsuyoshi Kondoh

The utilization of silica particles originated in rice husks as reinforcements of magnesium composites was discussed. By using the solid state reaction of rice husk silica particles with magnesium powder, P/M magnesium based composites dispersed with the magnesium silicide (Mg2Si) and magnesium oxide (MgO) were fabricated. High-purity silica particles were originated from rice husks, one of the major agricultural wastes, via the citric acid leaching treatment and combustion in air. The effects of the silica particle characteristics such as size, crystalline and porous structures, on the reactivity of silica and magnesium to synthesize Mg2Si intermetallic were discussed. Amorphous silica was more useful for this reaction than crystalline one. The reactivity of rice husk silica was superior to that of the conventional mineral silica particles because of not only its amorphous structure but the larger specific surface area due to their pore structures. In the case of the green compact of the mixture of the rice husk silica and Mg powder, the silica particle size was not effective on the reactivity because the coarse particles were fractured into fine ones by cold compaction. The distribution of Mg2Si intermetallics of magnesium powder composites consolidated by SPS process was investigated by XRD and SEM-EDS analysis. Their mechanical and physical properties were also evaluated in detail.

Jan 1, 2009

By D. M. Walters

To achieve safe and healthy working conditions in shaft sinking operations, ventilation, and where necessary cooling, must be provided. These requirements are considered for sinking vertical, sub-vertical and decline shafts. Regulatory requirements, determining air volumes and amount of cooling required, the various ventilation methods used such as force, exhaust, twin columns, air reversal using four gate systems and the equipment required to achieve this, are discussed. Consideration is also given to the sinking of single and twin declines using diesel equipment, calculating the air volumes required to dilute pollutants and the various methods for achieving this. Also discussed is the importance of having early ventilation design input to the overall design of the mine. In many cases ventilation can be the prime determinant for the size and configuration of the shafts or declines that have to be sunk.

Jan 1, 2009

By B. K. Belle

The use of diesel engine locomotives in South African mines can be traced to Van Dyk Consolidated Mines Ltd on the Witwatersrand gold mines in 1928 as a replacement for battery locomotives. The advantages and disadvantages were recognized in those days, and surprisingly, there are no significant additions to this list, but only refinements. In the absence of any Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) for Diesel Particulate Matter (DPM) in SA, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (USA) rule is currently being used as a benchmark for the ventilation engineering designs. This paper discusses the ongoing SA journey of measurement and limitations of exposure data for ventilation planning and regulatory purposes. The currently accepted DPM limits are based upon the belief that they are economically and technically feasible for the mines to reach and are not necessarily health based. For SA underground platinum mines, a median TC/EC ratio of 1.8 with a range of 1.2 to 5.8 was observed. For SA coal mines, a median TC/EC ratio of 1.44 with a range of 1.25 to 2.13 was observed. While it is common practice in the USA to use the ratio of TC/EC for metal mines to be 1.3, the ratio found in local platinum mines is 2.2 and for coal mines, the ratio was 1.53 which is lower than Australian studies, i.e., 1.96. It has been shown that a need for critical analysis of TC/EC ratios exists, and possible reasons for variance must be understood before stringent adoption of overseas recommended limits for DPM. It is hoped that the findings from this paper would provide input to scientific approaches in developing appropriate conversion factors, limits for DPM and also in ensuring appropriate error factors (currently 1.14 for TC and 1.2 for EC) for compliance determination.

Jan 1, 2009

By S. Eck

In previous work the influence of the casting speed on the flow field and the shape of the solidification front in an industrial 0.82 x 0.25 x 0.8 m³ bronze caster had been investigated. Both numerical and experimental model represented 1:1 the real caster geometry. A comparison of the results of both numerical and experimental models for the flow during the casting process showed a good agreement in the qualitative velocity fields (flow direction and vortex formation). This work represents a parameter study of the numerical model with variations of the turbulence conditions at the inlet in order to clarify their influence on the flow field in the caster. In order to find the best boundary condition at the inlet, the numerical calculations for water have been compared with the measured flow fields in the water model. The new boundary conditions were then applied to the numerical model of the bronze casting process.

Jan 1, 2009

Many industries base their decisions on the assaying of tiny analytical sub-samples. The problem is that most of the time several sampling and sub-sampling stages are required before the laboratory provides its ultimate assays using advanced chemical and physical methods of analysis. As long as each sampling and sub-sampling stage is the object of due diligence using the Theory of Sampling it is likely that the integrity of the sought after information has not been altered and the generated database is still capable to fulfil its informative mission. Unfortunately, more often than not, unawareness of the basic properties of heterogeneous materials combined with the unawareness of stringent requirements listed in the theory of sampling, lead to the conclusion that massive discrepancies may be observed between the expensive outcome of a long chain of sampling and analytical custody, and reality. There are no areas that are more vulnerable to such misfortune than sampling and assaying for trace amounts of constituents of interest in the environment, in high purity materials, in precious metals exploration, food chain, chemicals and pharmaceutical products. Without the preventive suggestions of the theory of sampling serious difficulties may arise when making Gaussian approximations or even log-normal manipulations in the subsequent interpretations. A complementary understanding of Poisson processes injected in the theory of sampling may greatly help the practitioner understand structural sampling problems and prevent unfortunate mistakes from being repeated over and over until a crisis is reached. This paper presents an overview of the theoretical, practical and economic difficulties often vastly underestimated in the search for quantifying trace amounts of valuable or unwelcome components.

Jan 1, 2009

By Jeffrey K. Whyatt

The Crandall Canyon accident investigation included an interesting and unexplained observation by rescuers that the ?barrier rib had shifted northward as a unit, as much as 10 feet.? This is not the first mention of such a movement, although such reports are rare. Historical accounts describe unusual movement and displacement of intact coal, cribs and timbers. Two movements of particular interest are the creation of gaps above coal pillars and falling of standing support elements without apparent damage. A dynamic boundary element program was used to explore movements induced by slip on geologic features removed from the affected panel. While the resulting models are much too simple to fully replicate these observations, they do show that the types of phenomena observed are possible. They can also provide insight into the types of motions that ground support elements are subjected to during large bump events. This was demonstrated for the case of a large bump in a Book Cliffs coal mine. Seismic information suggested the source mechanism to be normal slip on a fault. A model of that source showed initial dilation of the panel followed by dynamic compression and rebound ? consistent with underground observations. The initial dilation is important as it may allow slender standing support to shift or fall.

Jan 1, 2009

By V. Arslan

The primary advantage of using oxalic acid is in the formation during leaching of soluble complexes that are both photo-chemically and microbiologically degradable. In this study, chemical leaching and bioleaching methods were used for quartz sand. Using the ANOVA-Yates test technique, the effects of solids rate, temperature and oxalic acid rate were investigated using chemical leaching experiments. Solids rate and temperature were effective parameters on the chemical leaching. After the tests, the removal of Fe2O3 increased to 97.02%. Finally, the iron content decreased from 0.315% Fe2O3 to 0.0094% Fe2O3 in the leached quartz sand. The effect of pulp density was investigated on the bioleaching experiments. The bioleaching of iron oxides by Aspergillus niger resulted in removal of 47.70% of the total iron in the quartz sand, and suggested that this strain has not a good ability to remove iron impurities from quartz sand in comparison with chemical leaching. The iron content decreased from 0.315% Fe2O3 to 0.164% Fe2O3 in the bioleached quartz sand.

Jan 1, 2009

By E. Wolmarans

Dowding, Reynard and Associates Mineral Projects (DRAMP) was approached by the ARM/Lion Ore JV during July 2006 to conduct a feasibility study and control budget estimate for a new greenfield project for their NKOMATI Nickel mine 45 km east of Machadadorp. The scope included the evaluation and review of previous studies as well as a techno-economic trade-off on four possible comminution circuits ranging from conventional crushing and ball milling to fully autogenous milling. The following document encapsulates the thought process, decisions and the references used in selecting the final comminution route for the new 375 ktpm MMZ concentrator. Apart from the pilot test work performed, design simulations from a number of sources, performance results from a recently commissioned 100 ktpm MMZ concentrator, together with an understanding of the geology and mineralogy of the orebody and possible variations in the characteristics of the orebody over the life of mine were assessed. The results from all the above-mentioned work indicated that it would be possible to treat the MMZ ore at the desired throughputs to the desired grind sizes in a fully autogenous grinding (ABC-type) circuit. Autogenous milling is generally considered to be one of the higher risk milling circuits. This is mainly due to the fact that the ore, which is utilized as the grinding media, could be variable in terms of hardness and mineralogy/geology. Nevertheless, it is a very popular route as the cost benefits, more specifically the operating cost, are normally very attractive. This is especially the case when large low grade orebodies are evaluated. In North/South America, autogenous and semi-autogenous grinding circuits have been successfully employed during the past 20 years on large scale low grade operations. Taking all the above factors into account, the DRA/Nkomati project team recommended an autogenous circuit with the option to add steel to both the primary and secondary mills (if required) for the new operation in order to create the opportunity for significant operating cost savings. One has to bear in mind that all the new design simulations and decisions are based on previous work and potential unknown variations within the orebody will never be fully understood until the pit is operational for some time.

Jan 1, 2009

By J. E. Nesset

Significant progress has been made over the past few years on characterizing and understanding the hydrodynamic properties of frothers and collectors and their effect on flotation performance. This new understanding of the relationship between chemistry and hydrodynamics has dramatic implications for how flotation circuits should be controlled and optimized. Previous work has shown that choosing a frother of the right 'strength' is critical to the optimization process, and the work and discussion presented here serve to strengthen the argument. In addition, we know that collector chemistry may also influence hydrodynamic properties and needs to be taken into consideration. To achieve the desired outcome, the overall system of reagents and operating parameters must be considered. This paper describes and discusses some of the findings from recent research on frother and collector chemistry effects (on hydrodynamics), and how this knowledge can be used to improve flotation performance. Examples from plant experience are discussed.

Jan 1, 2009

By Eleanor Sonley

In October 2000, temporary seismographic stations were installed above the Trail Mountain Mine, Emery County, Utah, USA to supplement a regional network. Over seven months, 1826 mining-induced seismic events were recorded with a magnitude range of M 0 to M 2.2 (Arabasz et al., 2002, 2005). Routine event locations for this dataset cluster around the longwall mining activity during the recording interval. However, applying a double difference relocation technique to the routine locations significantly improves the correlation between mining activity and event location. The resulting relocations depend greatly on station distribution and the number of arrival time picks. We use this dense temporary array to assess station distribution requirements for applying the double difference technique at other mines by systematically removing data from available stations, thus simulating sparser networks. The insight gained using the Trail Mountain dataset is used to develop a metric for assessing the usefulness of above-mine networks and to develop a tool for expanding seismic network coverage. To verify the appropriateness of these tools for wider application, we examine data from two additional mines located in the western United States. Improving the relative locations of mining-induced seismic events highlights the association of these events with active portions of the mine. Clusters, regions of quiescence and relative timing of events can be used by mine operators to assess hazard, optimize production, and evaluate performance of mine plans. The lessons learned from this study may be used in future network design to improve accuracy of event locations at other mines.

Jan 1, 2009

Since I first enrolled to study Mining Engineering, the idea of working with big machinery and explosives has always appealed to me. After a few courses at uni, combined with vacation work and a number of presentations at the New LeadersÆ Conferences I had attended, I began to realise that the explosives side seemed to have more appeal than the others. As I look back on the past two and a half years that I have spent with Orica Australia Pty Ltd as part of their graduate program, I would have never imagined the dynamics of explosives in mining. This I put down to the ever changing and rapid development in technology converting blasting techniques into a defined predictable science. The opportunities I have been given have delivered all the appeals from when I first started my study. As a result of my entry into a profession that uses explosives to deliver broken rock in a range of mining and construction projects, through the use of advanced blasting technology and products, my experiences have been wide and varied. These experiences have included the use of OricaÆs i-konÖ detonator technology and blast design software to allow for blasting operations to occur in a range of environmentally sensitive quarrying and construction projects throughout New Zealand, to the implementation of various Orica blast based services aimed at improving dragline dig performance and reducing coal loss thus improve overall mine sustainability in the coal mines of Central Queensland, to the advanced utilisation of Orica explosive products and technology in a number of the worlds largest copper mines in Chile. I have witnessed first hand the blasting technology available within Orica Mining Services to both deliver fundamental changes in mining results and in turn kick off my career with a bang.

Jan 1, 2009

By C Johnstone

Project management is not a task to be undertaken lightly. Mining projects generally present even more challenges due to ChinaÆs remoteness and complexity. Having experiences in project management in the West is certainly an asset, but China can present the uninitiated with any number of headaches. To undertake a project there can have many problems that are unique to China. For the last 15 years, China has seen an increasing number of foreign capital investment projects in the mining industry. Practices involved in mining project development have experienced/are experiencing an evolution. Since 1996, Sino Gold Mining Ltd has delivered three mines in China, ie Jianchaling Gold Mine, Jinfeng Gold Mine and White Mountain Gold Mine. Through the work, Sino Gold has established a solid knowledge base and a capable and skilful workforce in effectively undertaking mining projects in China. This paper is concerned with the experiences accumulated so far by Sino Gold in project management in China. An overall review is conducted regarding the reform of the mining project development in China. Opportunities and challenges are highlighted within the political, economic and culture context. Brief summaries of the development of the three gold mines are presented.

Jan 1, 2009

Mines in the future deliver a paradigm shift in the way mining, material handling and processing are performed, unlocking significant value through production efficiency, flexibility and lower costs and enabling substantial safety and environmental benefits (V Schweikart). Mines in the future are highly productive, with low production costs and are significantly safer. They operate with a skeleton crew and use intelligent systems that fuse information from field instrumentation and other sources to generate the most efficient operating environment. Automated systems are seamlessly integrated across the mine and across the corporate enterprise. Geological models, long-term and short-term plans create optimised production schedules, suitably generated by the mine simulator. Production schedules are shared with the operations management system for deployment mainly by remotely operated and autonomous equipment. As the schedule is implemented, information is collected and shared with various plans, schedules, models and optimisation programs. This production environment is managed in real time from a æCentral Operations CentreÆ and it is visible across the business providing fast and accurate information about productivity, machine condition and environmental conditions. Central Operations Centres also house teams of subject matter experts that monitor and manage the mines and are able to communicate directly with the skeleton crew in the field. Constraints across the production line are displayed and managed appropriately from this location to maximise throughput. Maintenance is interactive and predictive. Reliability specialists in Central Operations Centres monitor the status of machinery and equipment and adjust maintenance plans and strategies to suit. Mining businesses rely heavily on knowledge workers û people with considerable knowledge and learning û and by manual workers. This new knowledge workforce is a team of associates rather than of bosses and subordinates. Field experts become leaders with tremendous autonomy regarding their work. The former line hierarchy becomes a support structure, intervening only in extreme emergencies; instead of giving orders, they are now removing barriers, expediting resources, conducting studies and acting as consultants.

Jan 1, 2009

By Sean Harvey

One of the manifestations of the dynamically induced failures in deep coal mines is the violent ejection of coal from the ribs. A possible protection against such failures is the use of a specifically designed dynamic support system with reinforcement units having the sufficient capacity to absorb the kinetic energy of the dynamic failure and a skin support that can adequately contain the disintegrated coal. With this method of mitigation in mind, a recently introduced yielding rock bolt, trade name Roofex, has been identified (Harvey and Ozbay, 2009) as a possible energy absorbing component of a dynamic support system. According to the manufacturer?s specification, the Roofex bolts can yield 300 mm (or more) displacement while holding 80 kN pull load. In order to assess the performance of this support unit in coal ribs, a series of in situ pull tests performed in two coal mines in Colorado. The results show that, under conventional pull test loading conditions, Roofex yielding bolts perform very close to their claimed specifications, thus showing a potential for their use as the main energy absorbing component of a dynamic support system. Further studies are required to confirm the in situ performance of these bolts under dynamic loading conditions and also to develop a containment component for a dynamic support system for the mitigation of dynamic coal rib failures.

Jan 1, 2009

By Luis Hoyos-Reyes, Jesus Gonzalez-Trejo, Adriana Cervantes-Clemente, Marco Gutierrez-Villegas, Manuel Palomar-Pardave, Cesar Real-Ramirez

Recent improvements on Peirce-Smith Converters (PSC) have combined numerical and physical simulations. However, most of the physical simulations have been carried out in cold-water models with only one tuyere. Several authors have proved that 2D numerical simulations do not reproduce the hydrodynamic behavior observed in physical simulations. On the other hand, most of the 3D numerical models have used a PSC thin slice with only one tuyere, but symmetric boundary conditions on the virtual walls have been imposed in order to reproduce the behavior of the whole converter. Therefore, there is no coincidence with the rigid walls of the physical models. The aim of this work is to quantify the effect of the virtual walls boundary conditions of a PSC thin slice and to determine the minimum number of tuyeres to characterize the fluid flow behavior of the entire converter.

Jan 1, 2009

By A. T. Iannacchione

Recent fatal injuries occurring during pillar retreat coal mining call for better identification of the hazards and recognition of risks. Ground control hazards associated with room-and-pillar retreat mining tend to intensify with depth, requiring extra precautions in the form of additional controls. In many locations these activities are further complicated by local complexities often associated with unique or novel circumstances, such as over-mining or under-mining. One technique recently studied by NIOSH, Major Hazard Risk Assessment (MHRA), may help mine operators to mitigate the risks associated with pillar recovery operations. The approach was trialed at two underground coal mines in southern West Virginia that are currently practicing pillar recovery. The first step in the MHRA process involved reviewing the segments or parts of the pillar extraction mining system and identifying associated hazards and threats to the operation. Some of the high risk hazards at these two sites included: ? Rock fall during pillar extraction covers equipment and injury ? occurs during recovery operations, Rock fall above the roof bolt horizon, potentially injuring ? workers and/or requiring recovery action,Rib fall under deep cover, potentially injuring workers, and; ? Strata instabilities associated with subsidence of the ? interburden due to simultaneously mining two seams in close vertical proximity to one another. The mines? risk assessment teams then considered each threat individually in order to systematically identify potential unwanted events. The top unwanted events were examined individually using structured risk analysis tools. The output from the process includes a list of priority existing controls for monitoring and auditing, and a second list of potential new controls. These controls consisted of: ? Examples of best practices, ? Enhanced communication, ? Implementing standard operating procedures (SOP), ? Protocols for emergency response actions, ? Effective layouts, ? Efficient monitoring, and; ? Successful audits. This paper documents the process as it unfolded at the two mines, and analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of the MHRA technique as it applies to pillar recovery operations. This work was part of a larger NIOSH research project. NIOSH was responsible for: 1) facilitating the risk assessment process known as Major Hazard Risk Assessment (MHRA), 2) documenting the risk assessment process, and 3) providing mine management with a written draft summary of the risk assessment process. The results of the risk assessment represent the thoughts and opinions of the individual risk assessment teams and should in no way be construed as an endorsement of the risk assessment output by NIOSH or the University of Pittsburgh.

Jan 1, 2009

By H. C. Van Der Merwe

In the 21st century, dynamic, accurate digital 3-D geological models are essential to the pursuit of safe, efficient and profitable mining. This is particularly true for the deep-level underground mines in South Africa. The Sirovision® solution is a collaboration project between the Australian CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation), Datamine Software Ltd. and AngloGold Ashanti Ltd (AGA). The purpose of the project is to provide a fully integrated digital rock face imaging, geological mapping and modelling system for the AGA gold mining operations. The CSIRO-developed Sirovision® Stereo Camera Rig (SCR) consists of two digital cameras, alighting system, a laser guidance system and image processing software. The imaging system works on the principles of photogrammetry, i.e. overlaying of two 2-D images with a central focus point, with mathematical algorithms extracting 3-D information from the 2-D image pair. The output from matching several image pairs is a computer-generated, full 3-D, virtual copy of the mining excavation. The image resolution and relief ares of sufficient quality to distinguish different rock types and structural contacts. Functionality within Datamine Studio3 is used to add geological intelligence to the 3-D images provided by Sirovision®. The geologist identifies and ?draws? lines representing geological features directly onto the image. By utilizing the inherent ?topography? of the 3-D image, the software is able to convert the lines into 3-D surfaces, ready for use in the 3-D geological model. Subsequent to promising underground test results from AGA?s Sunrise Dam Gold Mine (SDGM) in Australia and other mining operations worldwide, it was decided to test the Sirovision® system in the South African deep-level gold mines. The first underground tests at Moab Khotsong Mine began in January 2009. The objectives of these tests entailed the capturing of 3-D images of selected development ends, mapping of geological features onto the 3-D images and integration of the mapping data with the 3-D geological model. Some downsides have cropped up during the feasibility testing, related to practicality of the SCR for acquisition of 3-Dimagery in the deep-level underground operating environment. These constraints will have to be addressed prior to operational implementation. Facing such difficulties is not unusual when attempting to implement new technology in such a challenging working environment and testwork is still in progress at the mine in order to prove the concept of using this technology in a Witwatersrand underground gold mine. The great advantage of the Sirovision® solution is that it offers the geologist the opportunity to work remotely on a 3-D virtual copy of a mining excavation, without the heat, humidity, hazards and time constraints associated with physical mapping in an underground workplace.

Jan 1, 2009