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By V. Rajaram

Rock reinforcement systems are used in open pit and underground mines to stabilize the rock mass in-situ and provide safe working conditions. Significant progress has been made to date in the design and implementation of rock reinforcement systems to accommodate bad rock conditions and larger excavations. However, the rationale for the design of rock reinforcement systems remains essentially the same and can be categorized into three groups, namely 1. to create a beam of competent rock in stratified formations, 2. to resist sliding motion in jointed rock, 3. to passively support the superincumbent loads in highly stressed ground. Case histories of the rock reinforcement sys¬tems that illustrate these design approaches will be presented in this paper.

Jan 1, 1983

By W. J. Douglas

Before discussing minicomputer software for the mineral industry, it is helpful to explain some of the computer program terminology. Most of the terms are the same as those applied to large computers. A computer system consists of a machine (hardware) with electronic and mechanical components and instructions (software) that define its operational logic and sequence. This logic is described by sets of commands grouped into programs. Each program has specific objectives related to the computer's operation and to production information from computer data that are input and processed. Software, therefore, is a general term applied to any type of computer program. Instructions to the computer are communicated through languages that convert logical and arithmetic statements into machine operations. The languages may consist of statements resembling mathematical or logical phrases understandable by humans, or they may be coded statements with no apparent resemblance to spoken language but readily understandable by the computer. Computers also translate higher level languages such as FORTRAN or COBOL into machine languages using other programs called Compilers. Programs written in these higher level languages are generally called source code. However, programs written in computer assembly language may also be called source code. The compiled version of the program after it has been translated by the compiler software is called object code. Programs used to "instruct computers how to be computers" are generally called systems software. They relate more to computer operation than to producing externally usable results. Programs producing information for many users-engineers, accountants, managers-are termed applications software. For the most part, applications software is the principal concern of the mineral industry. Programs are developed to fit user requirements as interpreted by programmers. Programs vary in quality, precision, efficiency, accuracy, and complexity, depending on programmer skills and abilities and programming decisions forcing design tradeoffs. A well written program should have speed, efficient use of available hardware resources, accuracy, and an inherently logical structure that aids documentation and subsequent modifications. Programs developed to fit specific requirements are termed customized software. A program organized and prepared for general commercial use is called a package, or a software package, and includes documentation for program use. A form of customized software that takes an existing program or package as its starting point and modifies it is called a customized package. A minicomputer program can be stored on computer cards, standard magnetic tape, magnetic cassette tape, floppy disk, or hard disk. The software purchaser or lessee may select one or more of these media when specifying a program in a software contract. Supporting documentation may include a listing of the program instructions linkages, hardware and storage resource requiremnents, flow charts, and programmer and user manuals. The purchaser must carefully make and clearly understand specifications for media and format of program delivery. This assures that delivered software is compatible with the intended hardware. Mineral Industry Attitudes Toward Computer Software The mining industry has traditionally been conservative concerning computer applications. Furthermore, large computer costs have made these systems accessible only to large companies, for the most part. But in the past few years, mining software systems developed at schools such as Pennsylvania State University and Virginia Polytechnic Institute have gained wider acceptance in the mineral industry. More mining engineers now have academic training in computer application, and computer use is now more acceptable to the mining industry. Mining managers in decisionmaking positions are faced with a new generation of computer technology resulting from the rapid evolution of minicomputers. Not too long ago, manufacturers such as Digital Equipment Corp., Data General, and Hewlett-Packard were considered newcomers. They are now established companies. In addition, Apple, Radio Shack, Commodore, and others have emerged in the growing microcomputer industry. So the mine manager or mining executive now has more options. Mining Software is Limited Along with the rapid evolution in hardware development, much general purpose software is now being developed for minicomputers. The 1981 Apple Software Directory can be obtained for about $14; Radio Shack published the Application Software Source Book in three volumes for $1.95 each. Brochures describing software can be obtained for other minicomputer manufacturers by contacting local sales representatives. Hewlett-Packard software can be obtained and exchanged through HP user's groups. Manufacturers' programming staffs are generally concerned with developing applications software. In some instances, manufacturers will recommend software developed by their hardware users. Until now, however, software development for mining applications has been minimal. This should not be surprising, since software development traditionally lags hardware development by several years. A review of A Directory of Computer Software Applications/Mini-Computers and Micro-Computers, August 1977-1980, published by the US Department of Congress, National Technical Information Service, contains many entries and subject areas. General applications include some references to tunneling machines, but there are virtually no entries specifically relating to

Jan 11, 1981

By Richard A. Bideaux

Using computer applications to solve mining problems began in the early 1960s, utilizing the large (for that day) centralized computing facilities at a few universities and major mining company headquarters. Many years passed before technology was adequate to allow any of those applications to be run at the mine sites to provide immediately available solutions. One of the first mining applications attempted was for ore reserve analysis and long- to medium-range mine planning. As these are among the most frequent and familiar minicomputer applications at the mine site, it is interesting to follow the evolution of computing and communications hardware which has finally allowed effective transfer of this technology.

Jan 11, 1981

By A. L. Hinde

Ideally, mill circuits should be controlled so that excessive random disturbances are reduced in frequency and amplitude. It is difficult to derive an objective measure of the effectiveness of any chosen control strategy. Often, the response of the circuit to pulse or sinusoidal disturbances is used as a measure of the effectiveness of control, but this is not adequate in many circumstances because such disturbances bear little resemblance to those that occur in practice, and such an approach cannot be easily related to the profitability of the reduction process. A superior approach appears to be the application of the theory of stochastic processes. This theory permits both real process disturbances to be modelled accurately, and useful objective functions for control to be derived. A test of the usefulness of stochastic theory in mill control was made on the gold ore milling circuit shown in Figure 1. This circuit was fed with an ore which had a liberation characteristic such as that shown in Figure 2. It is simple to show that, for such a liberation characteristic, the recovery of valuable mineral will vary as the standard deviation of the particle mass-size distribution varies even though the mean particle mass-size is kept constant. Similarly it may be shown that excessive perturbations in the circulating load in a milling circuit such as that shown in Figure 1 can affect liberation. Figure 3 shows how, as the cyclone feed density increases and the sump water addition decreases at constant sump level, the cyclone operation becomes unstable and the discharge "ropes? with a consequent catastrophic coarsening in product size. By minimising the variance of the circulating load it is possible to reduce the probability of initiating instabilities of this nature.

Jan 1, 1977

By P. N. Eksteen, G. E. Greig

The South African mining industry currently installs about 6 km per month of plastic pipes for conveying compressed air and water. Plastic pipes have a number of desirable properties and are favoured by many mining engineers because of their low mass, which facilitates ease of erection and assembly, and their excellent corrosion resistance and durability. However, they are combustible, and if involved in an underground fire can contribute to the overall toxicity of the combustion gases emitted. Furthermore, plastic pipes have the potential to conduct a fire from one part of a mine to another, and, by so doing, exacerbate an already hazardous situation. The limitations of small scale tests and the need to establish a large facility where underground conditions could be simulated was recognized by the South African mining industry. This paper briefly describes the Industry's full scale fire test facility and presents the conclusions drawn as a result of a number of full scale combustibility tests conducted on pipes manufactured from unplasticized Poly Vinyl Chloride (uPVC) and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). Based on these findings, some practical solutions to prevent the spread of fire along the length of pipe columns of various pipe diameters and suspension configurations are presented. Recently some new and exciting developments in the field of intumescent coatings have occurred which are proving effective in minimizing the incidence of fire underground on South African mines. The potential benefits of these coatings are briefly discussed. INTRODUCTION Plastic pipes used underground on mines are predominantly in the form of protective cladding on insulated chilled water pipes and as service pipes for the conveying of water and compressed air to the workings. Plastic pipes have found wide use in the aggressive environmental conditions encountered underground due to their favourable properties relative to steel; these include being lightweight, easily installed and virtually immune to corrosion. However, plastic pipes are inherently combustible and can contribute to the overall hazard in three ways: (i) they are easily ignitable and can provide the initial fuel for a fire. (ii) once ignited, they can propagate a fire along their length and by so doing ignite other combustibles in their path, thereby contributing significantly to the overall conflagration. (iii) they can contribute to the overall heat, smoke and toxic gas emissions from a fire. While conscious of the value of small scale fire tests, the South African mining industry recognized the need for full scale testing to determine the combustion characteristics of plastic pipes under conditions closely approximating those underground and, as a consequence, a full scale fire tunnel test facility was commissioned with the objective of being able to (a), accurately evaluate the potential hazard of the various types of the plastic pipes found in mines, (b) use this information to suggest suitable fire engineering practices to minimize the hazard and (c), to practically verify the efficacy of the practices suggested. THE FIRE TUNNEL The fire tunnel is situated on a mine in the Western Transvaal and is 40 m long with a cross section of 3 m x 3 m which is typical of many haulages currently in use in South African gold mines. The ventilation drawn through the tunnel is provided by a 110 kW centrifugal exhaust fan and air velocities can be varied from 0 to a maximum of 5,8 m/s.

Jan 1, 1993

By Terry P. McNulty

During the last 30 years, at least ten authors have dealt with startup ("ramp-up') times for minerals beneficiation, hydrometallurgical, and/or pyrometallurgical plants. Most have attempted to identity the reasons for delays and some have suggested attributes common to successful startups, as well as those shared by unsuccessful ones. The most recent has advanced a project characterization matrix as a predictive tool for qualified users. This paper will summarize past work, will review cause and effect, will outline an approach for refining our ability to avoid costly delays, and will seek guidance from professionals most likely to use such a tool. INTRODUCTION During the last few decades, many billions of dollars have been lost by investors in mineral industry projects that did not perform as well as their developers had hoped. The most common form of failure has been the inability to generate a profit quickly, and delayed achievement of planned production rate has been the chief cause. Minerals processing projects are by no means the only kind of plant to suffer from startup delays, as some authors cited in this paper considered inorganic chemical plants and other types of facilities. Furthermore, mines are not without fault and there have been many that were closed after years of disappointing performance. However, our interests as a group are most sharply focused on mineral processing and our database for such projects is relatively extensive. It is sufficient to say that the conclusions made or repeated in the following text can be readily extended to most types of projects.

Jan 1, 2004

By John A. L. Dr. Campbell, James W. Haskew, F. Hoy Lee, Elliott P. Dr. Doane

Emissions of particulates, unburned hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (NO[ ]) and carbon monoxide (CO) from diesel engines are of concern in mines, particularly underground mines. All these undesirable products except NOx are the result of incomplete combustion in the cylinders. Various approaches to achieving more complete combustion in diesel engines have included different fuel compositions, use of catalysts, fuel additives, engine modifications, and oxygen-enriched intake air. The present study shows that injecting minute quantities of primarily platinum group metal catalysts into the intake air of a Deutz/MWM D916-6 mine diesel engine substantially reduces emissions in the exhaust. The catalyst injection system, which was developed by National Fuelsaver Corporation (Robin. 1981), transfers catalyst compounds in solution to a stream of air bubbles by a process called Bubble Fractionation (Lemlich et al.. 1966, 1968. 1970). The amounts are so minute that concentrations in the engine exhaust should be well below OSHA/NIOSH Time Weighted Average (TWA) exposure limits at steady state, a fact that was confirmed by analysis of collected particulates in the exhaust. When the catalyst injection was used along with a pleated paper filter to remove exhaust particulates, the filter operating life was shortened greatly. Therefore, this system is not recommended for use on diesel engines equipped with a water scrubber and a filter. It does offer a practical and relatively economical way of reducing exhaust emissions from other diesel engines, such as those in outby mine service

Jan 1, 1995

By Frederick P. Schwarz

Sample preparation and analysis can impose devastating errors on assay data. Minimizing these errors by testing and procedural redesign may be critical to assure representative assays and project success. Replicate samples, taken at any volume-reduction and/or analytical step in a sampling procedure, generate replicate assay values whose relative differences constitute a set of data. Variance of this data judges the addition to total sampling error imposed by the step generating the replicates. A variance more than (11.5%)' is excessive for a single step. Sample volume increase and/or comminution at a step will reduce variance for that step. Rejects from well mineralized intercepts can provide bulk samples for testing.

Jan 1, 1989

By Gabriel Böde Jimenez Leon, Michael Karmis, Christopher Newman, Zach Agioutantis

"When utilizing high recovery underground mining methods, such as longwall or high-extraction room-and-pillar mining, the movement and deformation of the overburden propagate toward the surface and may affect the integrity of overlying surface streams (Peng et al, 1996). Published studies cite three major mechanisms of subsidence as most likely to impact streams: displacement, slope and strain. While subsidence-induced vertical displacement cause little structural damage to the stream bed, it may create adverse drainage and stream flow issues as the subsidence trough allows for ponding (Dawkins, 2003). Subsidenceinduced changes to the slope, or tilt, of a stream may have adverse effects on water flow. As the stream enters the subsidence trough, the gradient increases providing potential erosion control problems. When exiting the subsidence trough, a reduction of the gradient may inhibit stream flow, causing localized ponding (Peng, 2008). While vertical displacement and tilt both may have detrimental effects to surface streams, the resulting strains have been documented as being the most damaging to surface streams and structures causing distortion, fractures, or failure (Singh, 1992). When stream beds are subjected to high tensile strain, tensile cracks may form at the surface level allowing for the direct loss of stream flow through fissures. When stream beds are located in areas of high compressive strain, rock layers forming the stream bed can fail as the stream bed ruptures, upward, blocking stream flow or having the stream diverted into the fracture zone at the base (Iannacchione, et. al., 2010).Recent investigations on the effects of underground mining on surface bodies of water suggest that to determine the degree of stream impact one must also consider the geologic structure and thicknesses, surface topography, watershed drainage areas, width of river bed and rate of mining. Due to the complex nature and number of parameters affecting surface streams, subsidence modeling tools and software packages should be implemented throughout all stages of subsidence planning, prediction and control. The Surface Deformation Prediction System (SDPS) utilizes the influence function for the calculation of final subsidence deformations with respect to the angle of influence, supercritical subsidence factor as a function of the percent hard rock, edge effect offset distance, and surface topography. Developed more than 25 years ago, SDPS has been continually updated with new analysis and prediction features, providing a reliable and versatile program for subsidence management methodologies. Most recently, the program has been updated to evaluate the effect of varying surface topography in the prediction of horizontal displacements, referred to as ground strain, allowing for the accurate three-dimensional representation of surface deformations in mountainous terrain (Agioutantis and Karmis, 2014). Ground strain has become one of the predominant deformation indices used in the evaluation of potential damage to surface structures (Karmis et al., 1995). Ongoing work with SDPS software seeks to investigate the calculation of ground strain in SDPS and its ability to accurately and realistically predict damage to surface streams due to underground mining operations."

Jan 1, 2015

By G. B. J. Leon, M. Karmis, C. Newman

"The prediction of surface deformations due to underground mining operations has been a long recognized practice with case studies documented as far back as 1556 in Georgius Agricola's De Re Metallica (Latin for On the Nature of Minerals). There is currently increased public awareness and regulatory scrutiny on the potential impacts of underground longwall and second mining operations, but this time the focus is placed on environmental impacts to overlaying bodies of water such as streams, rivers, wetlands, lakes, etc. (Karmis and Agioutantis, 2015). Community residents and environmental groups, as well as federal and state regulatory agencies, have often cited adverse stream impacts and demanded stronger measures and scrutiny in issuing mining and reclamation permits (Booth, 2006). Mining companies are required to focus on the protection of sensitive bodies of water through the monitoring of stream flow and water quality, management and rehabilitation techniques, as well as the adoption of ""no mining zones,"" which potentially sterilize large portions of minable coal reserves. This paper examines the use of an empirical modeling approach for the protection of surface streams based on evaluation of ground strain magnitudes. Utilizing enhanced features of the Surface Deformation Prediction Software (SDPS), ground movements can be predicted accurately in the vicinity of surface bodies of water. The modeling of ground movements can aid in establishing optimum extraction sequences, while the magnitudes of anticipated subsidence can be used in the evaluation of mitigation plans when undermining surface bodies of water. INTRODUCTION When utilizing high recovery underground mining methods, such as longwall or room-and-pillar mining, the movement and deformation of the overburden propagates toward the surface and may affect the integrity of overlying surface streams (Peng et al, 1996). Published studies cite three major mechanisms of subsidence as most likely to impact streams: displacement, slope, and strain. While subsidence-induced vertical displacement cause little structural damage to the stream bed, it may create adverse drainage and stream flow issues as the subsidence trough allows for ponding (Dawkins, 2003). Subsidence initiated changes to the slope, or tilt, of a stream may have adverse effects on water flow. As the stream enters the subsidence trough, the gradient increases providing potential erosion control problems. When exiting the subsidence trough, a reduction of the gradient may inhibit stream flow, causing localized ponding (Peng, 2008). While vertical displacement and tilt both may have detrimental effects to surface streams, subsidence induced strains have been documented as being the most damaging to surface streams and structures causing distortion, fractures, or failure (Singh, 1992). When stream beds are subjected to high tensile strain, tensile cracks may form at the surface level allowing for the direct loss of stream flow through fissures. When stream beds are located in areas of high compressive strain, rock layers forming the stream bed can fail as the stream bed, ""ruptures,"" upward blocking stream flow or having the stream diverted into the facture zone at the base (Iannacchione, et. al., 2010)"

Jan 1, 2016

By L. Alagha, L. A. Sanchez-Calderon

The existing methods for recycling lithium-ion batteries present initial hurdles related to the safe handling and preparation of the batteries to avert potential explosions. Submerging batteries in sodium chloride (NaCl) solution has become an acceptable industrial practice. However, the use of NaCl to discharge lithium-ion batteries rusts the batteries’ cases and releases metals which impacts the downstream processes that involve selective recovery of Li. This study aimed to determine the optimal concentrations and pH range of NaCl for the discharge of lithium-ion batteries for the purpose of minimizing the leach of Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, and Ni.

Feb 1, 2024

By Selamet G. Ercelebi, Mahmut Yavuz

An inherent aspect of longwall mining is moving the equipment from a mined-out panel to a newly developed panel. Moving times may be reduced by detailed preplanning. A very useful tool for planning is MS Project. Using MS Project, one can efficiently plan, manage and coordinate a project from conception to conclusion. The critical path analysis identifies potential critical activities which may cause excessive time delays. Changes to the tasks on the critical path can have significant impact 0.n the completion of a project. Assigning additional resources to these tasks (either moving labor from other tasks to critical tasks or providing labor overtime work) may reduce the move time. Simultaneous activities are the candidates for moving the labor from an activity to another. Each time a change is made, the critical path should be recalculated. MS Project quickly recalculates schedules and lets you see how changes in one part of the project will affect the overall plan. In this fashion it is possible to minimize the longwall move time.

Jan 1, 2002

By G. V. Krishna Roa, G. Vijaya Kumar

One of the main objectives while planning ventilation systems for mines with multiple fans is minimization of the total airpower consumption of the mine. Solution of this problem by conventional ventilation network analysis programs is tedious and time consuming, and may not yield optimum results in all the cases. The paper presents an algorithm for solving multiple fan networks by finding optimum combination of fan operating points for required airflow distribution in the ventilation system.

Jan 1, 1995

By Richard Jr. Ray, Richard Druesedow

The Virginia Operations of Consolidation Coal Co. include a diversity of mine fan configurations which have been tested to quantify pressure losses through the inlet ductwork. Airflow and pressure measurements were taken at four shaft sites to calculate losses for the 90-degree bend at the top of the shaft and the self-closing dampers or closing doors located between the shaft and fan. Velocity contours were then developed from the test data to determine flow patterns in each fan system component. In addition, yaw and pitch angles of airflow through the fan annulus were measured to evaluate turbulence levels created by various inlet ductwork designs. The test results indicate that proper design of the shaft collar and ductwork arrangement for main mine fans can substantially reduce system pressure losses and air turbulence. BY minimizing the pressure drop experienced on the surface, these design improvements enable the bulk of the total pressure developed by the fan(s) to be utilized in the mine.

Jan 1, 1995

By D. J. Barratt

What is meant by "Minimizing Risk"? This paper explores some of the factors encountered in plant design which can affect the success of a mineral processing plant in terms of its planned output, quality of product and recovery. Any deficiency in either one of these objectives means lost revenue at the start of a project and reduced present value for the mine life. Time is money. Related factors such as project conception, feasibility studies, capital cost and operating cost estimation and mining studies have been covered in a recent paper (1) from which material for this paper has been drawn. What follows is a discussion of the principal factors which can influence the success of a project with particular emphasis placed on processing concepts.

Jan 1, 1983

By David G. Hammond

INTRODUCTION Previous papers and discussions at this conference have already covered the subjects of identification and nature of risks, allocation of risks and contractual arrangements. In this portion of the conference, in the light of topics already covered, we will consider how to minimize risks and how to mitigate losses. Webster defines mitigate as "to make less severe or painful", an apt definition for our purpose! RISK MANAGEMENT POLICY The first thing that must be said about risks, especially in construction, is that they exist and that they don't necessarily fall alike on the just and the unjust. Some risks, i.e., some kinds of risks, must be recognized as inevitable in engineering and construction and therefore must philosophically and realistically be accepted as part of situations to be dealt with. Dealing with means minimizing, covering, and sharing of risks and doesn't mean merely passing off the risks to someone else. While some risks can be avoided, for example, whether the structure will fall down or the excavation will cave in, risks management primarily deals with: A. minimizing risks---whomever risk it may be B. equitable sharing of those risks among the participants.

Jan 1, 1979

By N. Djordjevic

Introduction The vibration energy that travels beyond the zone of rock breakage is wasted - all it does is cause damage and annoyance. Under favorable geologic conditions, this energy may travel many kilometers before it finally drops bellow the background noise level. This has forced the introduction of more restrictive limits to the allowable vibration levels. To maintain the profitability of a mine or quarry and to comply with environmental protection legislation, blasting needs to be performed in a more predictable way that will ensure that the final results are optimal in both mining and environmental terms. Minimization of ground and induced structural vibration is, therefore, a matter of good blasting practice -not just an attempt to avoid complaints from neighbors. A new approach to blast vibration minimization is presented. The method utilizes the existence of the local minimums in the frequency spectrum of single-hole blast vibration. The results are presented as a delay map showing maximum ground or structural vibration velocity for many combinations of interhole and interrow delays. A blast engineer can use this map to select an optimal combination of delays that will produce a low vibration velocity at a selected location and, at the same time, will be acceptable from the point of view fragmentation or muck pile shape. Response of structures A typical single-story building has two distinctive forms of vibration. The first form is a translatory vibration of the building superstructure (frame), and the second form is a flexural-bending vibration of the structural elements such as walls and floors (Siskind et al., 1980). Walls and floors will have several modes of oscillation. The most important is the fundamental mode of the vibration, as this mode will have the lowest frequency, the largest amplitude and will cause the largest deformations. The vibration of walls and floors is also a source of secondary vibration within a building, due to the movement of loose objects, e.g., furniture and wall fittings (Dowding, 1985). The subjective estimate of the amplitude of a vibration by the occupants of a house will be unrealistically high due to the effect of the secondary vibrations. It is now well recognized that human perception of ground vibration begins at levels that are far below those that will produce minor damage to the most fragile structures. In mining and quarrying operations, complaints regarding vibration levels tend to be determined more by human perception or annoyance rather than by observations of damage. Ground vibrations on the order of 0.08 mm/s (0.0032 ips) (Walter and Walter, 1979; Murray, 1987) can be felt, and they are often subjectively estimated to be about 100 times greater. Amplification of ground vibration in the structure depends on the amount of energy in the ground vibration spectrum that is in the vicinity of the structure's resonant frequencies together with the damping ratio of the structure at these particular frequencies. One way to avoid significant vibration amplification in a structure is to shift the dominant part of the ground vibration away from the resonant frequency range of the structure. The presented method allows for the selection of the optimum blast timing (interhole and interrow delay times) to minimize the resultant ground vibration amplitudes in a given frequency range. It also allows the selection of suboptimal, but still acceptable, blast delay times, which may be preferable from the point of view of overall blast performance. Determining frequency ranges of importance in structures In attempting to avoid amplification of vibrations in the structure, ground vibration amplitude of frequencies close to the resonant frequencies of the building needs to be minimized. The width of the frequency-minimization region is determined by the value of damping in the building. If the damping ratio is low, then the frequency-minimization region around the resonant frequency will be relatively broad. By shifting the dominant part of the ground-vibration energy into the frequency region much higher than the resonant frequency of the building (1.5 to 2 times), it is possible to achieve efficient vibration isolation of the building. In such cases, the structural dynamic amplification of ground vibration will be less than unity. The first step in this minimization process is the determination of the structural resonant frequency. From the frequency spectrum, it is possible to determine the resonant frequency of the structure. Sometimes the

Jan 1, 1998

By N. Djordjevic

The vibration energy that travels beyond the zone of rock breakage is wasted - all it does is cause damage and annoyance. Under favorable geologic conditions, this energy may travel many kilometers before it finally drops bellow the background noise level. This has forced the introduction of more restrictive limits to the allowable vibration levels. To maintain the profitability of a mine or quarry and to comply with environmental protection legislation, blasting needs to be performed in a more predictable way that will ensure that the final results are optimal in both mining and environmental terms. Minimization of ground and induced structural vibration is, therefore, a matter of good blasting practice - not just an attempt to avoid complaints from neighbors. A new approach to blast vibration minimization is presented. The method utilizes the existence of the local minimums in the frequency spectrum of single-hole blast vibration. The results are presented as a delay map showing maximum ground or structural vibration velocity for many combinations of interhole and interrow delays. A blast engineer can use this map to select an optimal combination of delays that will produce a low vibration velocity at a selected location and, at the same time, will be acceptable from the point of view fragmentation or muck pile shape.

Jan 1, 1997

By E. Jackson

This paper describes highlights of the Placer Dome MiniMole project - the development and testing of a robotic machine for mining narrow ore veins. A prototype hydraulically controlled robotic machine was built and tested. The machine provided a platform for testing numerous cutters in the field. Other cutters, e.g. undercutting devices, were tested in the lab. Extensive analyses were done on specific energies and cutter penetration. Three sets of quarry trials were done, then the machine was tested in an underground mine. Rock UCS values varied from 180 MPa to 230 MPa. The paper includes lessons learned and recommendations based on the project findings.

Jan 1, 2007

By Richard E. Otoo, Evan J. Owen, Virginia T. McLemore

According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), a critical mineral is one that is essential to the economic well -being of a nation and whose supply may be disrupted due to geological, geopolitical or environmental factors (Nassar et al., 2020). For example, REEs are critical to the production of electricvehicle motors as well as wind turbines, yet China’s share of their global production rose to more than 95 percent in 2010 (IEA, 2021). China’s share has since declined, with production quotas dropping to nearly 70 percent by 2023 (Statista, 2023). This and similar situations with many of the critical minerals raise deep global concerns about supply-chain vulnerabilities (Bauer et al., 2011). Critical minerals are used in the production of renewable energy, electronics, agricultural products and common household items (McLemore, 2020). As the global demand for these minerals continues to grow, it is not sufficient to rely solely on scaling up production from existing operations. While increasing production from known deposits can provide short-term relief, long-term resource security requires discovering new, economically viable mineral resources. One of the most effective ways to secure future supply is through mineral exploration, which increases the global inventory of critical minerals and also minimizes risks posed by market monopolies and political instability. The major challenge of mineral exploration lies not only in identifying mineralized deposits but also in determining whether discovered concentrations are sufficient to warrant further investigation and development. A fundamental concept in this decision-making process is using cut-off grade. In this article, cut-off grade refers to the minimum concentration of minerals required to justify further exploration efforts based on factors such as type and size of mineral deposit, mining and processing technologies, associated byproducts/coproducts and the market price of these minerals. Typically, economic cut-off grades are used to determine whether a mineral deposit can be mined profitably. However, this article focuses on preliminary cut-off grades needed to establish whether the amounts of critical minerals within a deposit are high enough to justify further exploration and detailed evaluations. By comparing mineral deposit grades, size, production and extraction technology, and other economic factors with established and active mines, exploration teams can estimate cut-off grades that justify further exploration.

Aug 1, 2025