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By Claudio Flores Martinez

The prospect of accomplishing economically and scientifically profitable deep-sea mineral mining within this decade or the next one is of particular interest to the emerging discipline of astrobiology which is concerned with the origin, distribution and future of life in the Universe. Several planetary bodies within our own Solar System such as Jupiter’s moon Europa and Saturn’s Enceladus now appear to be potentially habitable, or life-friendly, in terms of the three prerequisites for life as we know it: a sustained body of liquid water, biogenic elements (C, H, N, O, P, S) and energy sources to fuel metabolic reactions. Europa, for instance, possesses a global subsurface ocean, believed to be up to 100 km in depth, hidden beneath a kilometer-wide ice-sheet. A silicate mantle is directly interacting with a cold, aphotic ocean in which tidal forces might drive geological seafloor activity that results in the creation of hydrothermal systems. These locales are commonly hypothesized to be the cradles for an alternate origin of life on Europa. Especially alkaline hydrothermal springs, as found at Lost City, have been at the center of modeling the prebiological evolutionary dynamics preceding cellular life. Serpentinization-like reactions are also possibly fueling metabolic networks in putative microbial communities found in the oceans of the icy moos. Major space agencies around the globe are planning future space missions aimed at exploring and eventually characterizing potential life forms in these habitats. The technology needed for this exploration effort resembles the requirements for a successful deep-sea mineral mining industry: highly efficient AUVs (also equipped with biologically-oriented instrumentation), swarm robotics, landers, seafloor rovers and general high-pressure, cold temperature extreme environment engineering. Interestingly, science questions of deep-sea mineral mining and astrobiology converge too: the hypothesis of life originating at hydrothermal systems, the biogeographical distribution of species among these environments, adaptations of extremophilic organisms across the three domains of life and adequate autonomous robotic systems to assess the complexity of deep-sea biological communities. This presentation attempts to present a two-fold view of advanced planetary exploration that relates to a sustainable vision of deep-sea mineral mining: charting our oceans and developing technologies least harmful to endemic biology can propel the design and prototyping of future robotic planetary probes bound for aquatic missions on alien moons. Space industry, government and public interest towards a broadened planetary perspective on deep-sea mineral mining is promoted by addressing an astrobiological rationale of this endeavor.

Sep 1, 2014

By R. M. Clowes

LITHOPROBE is a collaborative, multidisciplinary research project that is providing new insights into the tectonic evolution of the North American continent through its work within 10 study areas across Canada. For the mining industry, such results provide a well-constrained regional framework and better understanding of the tectonic processes that lead to the development of ore deposits. In mining camps, seismic-reflection methods have proven effective in imaging shallow to moderately dipping lithologic contacts as well as structural features and, in some cases, have been used for the direct detection of orebodies. Here, short case histories are provided for the Abitibi greenstone belt (VMS deposits) in Quebec and the Thompson nickel belt in Manitoba.

Jan 1, 2002

By Bruce A. McKinstry

Introduction For many major mining projects the time frame from initial planning to production can be measured in decades. Hecla's Silver Shaft project, scheduled to go into production by the end of this year, includes a complete surface facility, shaft with an ultimate depth of 2.4 km (7,700 ft), complete ore pass and loading pocket system, and 610 m (2,000 ft) of development drifting and stope preparation. The project was conceived in the fall of 1979, and the duration of a mere four years from conceptual engineering to production is testimony to what can be accomplished when a mining company and a contractor work as a team rather than developing into two warring camps, as often happens. Engineering In 1979, Hecla Mining Co. awarded a contract to J. S. Redpath Corp. to perform feasibility investigations and design engineering related to a proposed new shaft facility at the Lucky Friday Mine. The Lucky Friday, in Mullan, ID, is a major producer of silver, as well as significant quantities of lead and some zinc. In late 1979, stoping was in prog-

Jan 10, 1983

By Jian Zhou, Shuai Huang, Wenqin Xi, Kun Du

The deep oceans harbor a wide variety of mineral resources that are characterized by their abundance and high quality. Nations worldwide are actively pursuing the exploration and extraction of these resources. This paper provides a concise overview of the mineral resources found in the deep sea, highlighting the challenges associated with their exploitation. Furthermore, it presents a comprehensive analysis of the historical development of deep-sea mining technology and equipment, offering valuable insights into this field. By examining the current issues and obstacles faced in deep-sea mineral extraction, this study concludes that the future of deep-sea mining lies in the direction of automation, intelligence, and standardization. Additionally, it identifies the key technological advancements that need to be achieved in order to overcome the challenges associated with deep-sea mining.

Jan 5, 2024

By J. Gonzales

For this paper, blending is conceived as a linear process that takes a proportion from one stockpile or location and mixes it with another proportion from another stockpile or location, with the aim of obtaining a set of attributes in the final combination that satisfies a given quality standard. A blending class is the combination of ore attributes and grade limits that should be stockpiled in order to achieve the target quality for the process Plant. Current literature considers the number of blending classes in the Open Pit Scheduling Problem as fixed; however, this paper shows how to define specific blending classes for a given deposit so that the schedule can be solved with Sequential Linear Programming. Finally, a practical application in a Peruvian copper mine is shown, involving four ore attributes: alteration code, arsenic, oxide content and copper grade. INTRODUCTION In copper ore deposits, blending for quality has not been a typical issue as it was for coal and iron ore; however, current copper deposits in the world are becoming geologically and chemically more complex than in the past and is not uncommon to have quality standards involving up to four attributes, introducing an additional complexity to the mine scheduling process [1]. In order to solve the Open Pit Scheduling Problem with multiple ore quality constraints, two assumptions are necessary [2]: - Grade constraints are defined only by specifying an upper and lower limit; - Ore attributes in stockpiles are pre-determined, i.e., the upper and/or lower grade limits defining each stockpile are already known at the time of setting the schedule. Assuming each ore attribute is classified as high, medium or low, and there are four attributes to be controlled in the target ore quality, the number of possible blending classes would be 3^4 = 81. This number is impractical to manage in Operations, and increases the complexity at the time of running the schedule; therefore, a more efficient way of classifying ore is required. Note that in practice, one blending class can be split into more than one stockpile location due to physical capacity constraints. Therefore, the number of stockpiles could even be more than 81. BLENDING CLASSES DETERMINATION For a given set of ore grades with lower and upper limits to be achieved, one has to find all feasible ore classes such that when blended, their grades will lie within those limits.

Jan 1, 2019

By K. A. Sauer

Blasting can create severe interference for a mine's carbon monoxide based fire detection system. At the present time, without being able to differentiate between blast and non-blast carbon monoxide, a fire detection system must either set fairly high alarm levels for its sensors, or allow frequent "false" alarms to sound during blasting. This paper will introduce current work being done which will attempt to define characteristics of the carbon monoxide concentrations time curve for blasting. The work uses drift blasting for its data base as it is one of the more common forms of blasting. Future work with the data may produce a mathematical model which can be used to monitor and identify the carbon monoxide time curve for drift blasting.

Jan 1, 1989

By C. L. Kosmoski, B. M. Eiter, B. P. Connor

"In the recent past, the mining industry has witnessed a substantial increase in the numbers of fatalities occurring at metal and nonmetal mine sites, but it is unclear why this is occurring. One possible explanation is that workers struggle with identifying worksite hazards and accurately assessing the associated risk. The purpose of this research was to explore this possibility within the mining industry and to more fully understand stone, sand and gravel (SSG) mine workers’ thoughts, understandings and perceptions of worksite hazards and risks. Eight mine workers were interviewed and asked to identify common hazards they come across when doing their jobs and to then discuss their perceptions of the risks associated with those identified hazards. The results of this exploratory study indicate the importance of workers’ jobrelated experience as it applies to hazard identification and risk perception, particularly their knowledge of or familiarity with a task, whether or not they had personal control over that task, and the frequency with which they perform that task. IntroductionAccording to the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA, 2015a), 37 mine workers were fatally injured in accidents at metal and nonmetal mine sites between October 2013 and January 2015, following a record low of 16 in 2012 and in 2011. In 2014 alone, 29 mine workers were fatally injured at a metal or nonmetal mine site, and 52 percent of these fatalities occurred at a surface stone, sand or gravel (SSG) mine. In January 2015, Joseph A. Main, Assistant Secretary of Labor for Mine Safety and Health wrote to stakeholders in the metal and nonmetal mining community and identified several areas where improvement was necessary to promote the health and safety of mine workers. One area identified was an increased focus on “daily and effective workplace exams to find and fix hazards” (MSHA, 2015b).Hazard detection is challenging in the mining industry, despite the existence of regulation. Mining is a major undertaking involving the use of complex heavy machinery, equipment and processes as well as numerous and diverse worker activities that take place in a dynamic, challenging environment (Scharf et al., 2001). In other industries that are similarly dynamic and unpredictable, such as the construction industry, a large proportion of hazards go undetected (Carter and Smith, 2006). It is critical that miners are able to both recognize worksite hazards and accurately assess the risk associated with the hazards, because their health and safety depend on their deciding whether and how to remove hazards and mitigate risks."

Nov 1, 2016

By David A. Lindsey

In this paper, we present a physiographic classification of gravel deposits, identify some field measures of aggregate quality, and describe sampling strategies for mapping aggregate quality in the Front Range Urban Corridor of Colorado. Gravel occurs in four types of deposits along the Front Range of Colorado: (1) piedmont alluvial fans, (2) high dissected terraces, (3) high (continuous) terraces, and (4) floodplains and low terraces. The four deposit types are the basis for definition of gravel-deposit models, which differ in geologic environment, deposit characteristics, deposit size, environmental impacts of mining, and post-mining use. Of the four types, floodplains and low-terrace deposits have been exploited most for gravel. High terraces also have been mined. Deposits of high dissected terraces and dissected alluvial fans have produced minor amounts of gravel, mostly for use as local fill. Studies to identify useful field measures of aggregate quality and to determine the appropriate scale for sampling were conducted on gravel deposits beneath the flood-plain and low terraces of the South Platte River north of Denver and the Cache la Poudre River between Ft. Collins and Greeley. Gravel deposits of the South Platte were selected for study because they represent the last major resource of gravel for aggregate in the Denver metropolitan area. The Cache la Poudre valley is the primary source of gravel aggregate for rapidly urbanizing areas around Ft. Collins and Greeley. Of all the field measures of gravel quality, the most important is particle size. Various parameters that measure particle size were investigated, but the easiest to determine, and the most useful to the aggregate industry, are measures of the proportion of coarse sizes. Particle size varies widely in gravels of the urban corridor. Gravel lithology, particularly the presence of deleterious particles such as reactive volcanic rocks and decomposed rocks, must be determined to assess aggregate quality. Studies of South Platte and Cache la Poudre gravels have not revealed large proportions of deleterious lithologies. Studies of particle shape revealed only small numbers of physically weak shapes in both the South Platte and Cache la Poudre gravels. Particle shape does not appear to vary from place to place in the gravels. Rounding, or the ab¬sence of angular corners, may play a role in the tendency of loose gravel to yield under load. South Platte and Cache la Poudre gravels are rounded, and rounding tends to increase upstream. Before the quality of gravel in a valley can be assessed, the stratigraphy of the gravel must be known because it affects sample design. If only a single gravel layer is to be studied, only the thickness of the gravel must be known before sampling. If, however, more than one layer of gravel-distinguished by particle size, sorting, or lithology-is present, sampling must take into account the thickness and distribution of each layer. For example, three gravel layers of different particle size underlie the floodplain and low terraces of the South Platte. The tributary Cache la Poudre, on the other hand, contains gravel layers that can be distinguished only locally and vary slightly in particle size. Sampling experiments were conducted on gravel bars in the South Platte River and in gravel pits on the floodplain and low terraces of the South Platte and Cache la Poudre Rivers. Experimental results indicate that, even where sample error is large, regional and stratigraphic variation may be measured if it is large relative to sample error. Using vertical trench samples weighing an average of 40-90 pounds, down-stream decrease in coarse particle size was mapped for Cache la Poudre gravel, and differences among superposed gravel beds were measured for South Platte gravel.

Jan 1, 1999

By Paul C. Schmall, Arthur B. Corwin, Derek Maishman

Ground freezing occupies a unique and important niche in underground construction, fulfilling a geotechnical need that is difficult, or sometimes impossible, to fulfill through other groundwater control and excavation support methods. Where complete groundwater cut-off and in-built ground support are required, and deep excavation is planned or the work occurs in difficult or disturbed ground, ground freezing offers the assurance critical to safe and timely construction. Compared with other groundwater cut-off or excavation support methods, a frozen wall is easily connected to underlying bedrock and will also adhere to adjoining subsurface installations or obstructions, if necessary, to provide a composite cutoff structure. Ground freezing is effective in all soil and ground conditions and has been used for emergency situations in disturbed, displaced or loose ground, where detailed soil characterization could not practically be performed.

Jan 1, 2005

By S. Dixon

The objective of any business is to maximize the value derived from the commodity produced. There is a point where additional expenditure does not return a value sufficient to justify the additional expense. The treatment of high acid consuming copper ores is a perfect example of this principle in which the relationship of acid consumed to the percentage of Copper extracted is vital to the economic value of the final product. This paper describes a method of evaluating column leach test data to determine the economic optimum conditions for leaching high acid consuming copper ores. The effect of acid consumption on the net economic value of the Copper extracted is very significant in the case of high acid consuming ores. The focus of this paper is the relationship of acid concentration in the raffinate, and acid cure dosage to the economic value of a leach cycle.

Jan 1, 2004

By Long An, Chao Wu, Yuanhui Li, Xing Sun, Shuai Xu, Changyu Jin

Stage open stope mining (SOSM) maintains the stability of excavation openings by leaving a large number of rib pillars. Affected by the strong unloading due to stage mining and the low width-to-height (w/h) ratio of the pillars remaining, large-scale destabilization disasters of rib pillars or excavation openings easily occur when the distribution of ground stress or the size of rib pillars is unreasonable. In view of these problems, a physical SOSM model test was carried out based on an underground metal mine in the city of Chifeng in China, revealing the deformation and failure characteristics of the SOSM pillar group by overloading.

Jul 1, 2023

By Long An, Chao Wu, Yuanhui Li, Xing Sun, Shuai Xu, Changyu Jin

Stage open stope mining (SOSM) maintains the stability of excavation openings by leaving a large number of rib pillars. Affected by the strong unloading due to stage mining and the low width-to-height (w/h) ratio of the pillars remaining, largescale destabilization disasters of rib pillars or excavation openings easily occur when the distribution of ground stress or the size of rib pillars is unreasonable. In view of these problems, a physical SOSM model test was carried out based on an underground metal mine in Chifeng City, China, revealing the deformation and failure characteristics of the SOSM pillar group by overloading. The physical model test results of SOSM and room-and-pillar mining (RPM) with a weak pillar were compared, and the failure process of the SOSM pillar group showed the characteristics of rapid and severe damage. The strength difference between a weak pillar and the adjacent pillars enhanced the stress rebalancing effect and extended the failure process of the pillar group. Similar to the SOSM pillar group with a low w/h ratio, some high-strength pillars can be used to avoid large-scale destabilization disasters caused by the synchronous failure of pillars.

Mar 8, 2023

By Kaige Zheng, Hongwei Wang, Tong Wang, Yanjun Li, Yongping Wu, JIANQIANG JIAO, Baolin Jiang

Due to the influence of economic development on the demand growth of coal resources, many mines in China have gradually entered deep mining. When the roof of deep coal seam is hard rock, it is easy to cause strong ground pressure with the advance of the working face, which seriously threatens the safety of coal mining. Taking 31,104 working face of a mine as the engineering background, this paper studies and compares the deformation characteristics and stress transfer evolution law before and after the presplitting of the hard roof through the combination of physical similarity simulation, numerical calculation, and field measurement, based on the analysis of the interaction relationship between the breaking and collapse of the composite hard roof, and verifies the treatment effect of hydraulic presplitting through field measurement. The results show that: (1) In the early stage of mining under the composite hard roof, the lower roof is mainly subjected to tensile failure, the voussoir beam structure formed is relatively unstable, and the stope is prone to impact. When the mining distance of the working face is large, the breaking rotation of the upper hard roof voussoir beam causes pressure damage to the lower hard roof, causing the lower hard roof voussoir beam structure to slide and lose stability, resulting in strong ground pressure in the working face. (2) After presplitting of composite hard rock stratum, in the early stage of mining, the range and degree of rock stratum damaged by presplitting are small except for the hard rock stratum itself, and the presplitting effect is not significant. When mining to the first square position, the roof is damaged in advance by presplitting, the overall plastic damage range increases, the damage form area increases, and the damage degree deepens. The vertical displacement of the composite hard roof increases rapidly, and the presplitting effect is remarkable. (3) The evolution characteristics of roof principal stress transfer show that under the dual effects of mining and presplitting, the roof tensile stress area above the goaf is large, the rock failure horizon rises, and the roof failure height is high and the failure degree is deep. The stress concentration degree of the coal mass in front of the goaf is reduced, and the stress concentration range is transferred to the rock mass in front. With the advance of mining, the hard roof in front can break and caving in time, so as to avoid rock burst disaster caused by large suspended roof area. The field ground pressure monitoring shows that the average periodic weighting interval, weighting range, peak value before weighting, and peak value during weighting of the working face after presplitting decrease by 53.5%, 38.03%, 8.63%, and 5.96%, respectively, which effectively reduces the weighting intensity and ensures the safe and efficient mining of the working face.

May 16, 2023

By I. Weir-Jones

I. Introduction The experimental work described in this paper was carried out during 1967 and 1968 in an inclined reinforced concrete adit which had been driven during 1965 and 1966 to provide primary access for a new gypsum mine. The new mine was situated near the village of Sherburn-in-Elmet in central Yorkshire in an area of extensive post-glacial plains of deltaic and lacustrine origin. These plains cover a large area of this part of Yorkshire extending inland from the coast for a distance of about 35 miles. The gypsum deposit at Sherburn dates from Permian times and it is considered" to have been associated with the western-most edges of the ancient Zechstein Sea which was also responsible for the formation of the extensive evaporite deposits in north-east Yorkshire. The gypsum deposit, which varies in thickness from 10 to 15 feet, is extremely pure and it occurs quite close to the surface; in the Sherburn area the overburden is only 120 feet thick. The proximity of the deposit to the surface, however, tends to give a somewhat false idea of the magnitude of the problems associated with its extraction. These problems were all related to the nature of the overlying strata. As has already been mentioned, the surface deposits are post-glacial and they consist of an extremely large number of thin layers of varved clays, fine silts and sands extending down to a depth of 75 feet. From the bottom of the post-glacial deposits to the seam, a distance of about 45 feet, the strata consists of a succession of marls, weak sandstones, and siltstones, which although they are inherently incompetent materials, are appreciably stronger

Jan 1, 1971

By Hai Lin, Renshu Yang, Yongliang Li, Shizheng Fang

With the aim of solving the large deformation problem of surrounding rock in coal mine roadways with a thin sand-mudstone interbed roof, transportation roadway 1603 in Haoyuan Mine was considered. The failure mechanism of surrounding rock was studied through comprehensive on-site investigations, borehole image analysis, mineral composition analysis, and other means. Numerical simulations were performed to determine the influence of roof layer thickness, lateral pressure coefficient, and coal rib strength on the stability of the interbedded roof. The main reasons for support failure and deformation of the roadway are softening and swelling of the sand-mudstone interbed roof upon exposure to water, insufficient support capacity of the roof due to the soft coal rib, an unreasonable support scheme, or poor construction quality, which can reduce the bearing capacity of surrounding rock. Based on our analysis, a control strategy was devised for a thin coal-mudstone interbed roof. The support scheme combines long and short cable support, strengthening of the coal rib to consolidate the roof, and partially shotcrete grout, and was found to improve the overall mechanical strength of surrounding rock and maintain the stability of the thin sand-mudstone interbed roof. The results of the numerical simulations and monitoring data indicated that the proposed support scheme effectively controls the deformation of the surrounding rock of thin sand-mudstone interbed roof of coal mine roadways while maintaining the safety and stability of the surrounding rock and supporting structure.

Dec 12, 2022

In 1981, North American Degerstrom Contracting began gold mining on the Little Rocky Mountain Range, near Zortman, MT. In the past four years, the price of gold has fluctuated from a high of $16/g ($500 per oz) to a low of $9.60/g ($300 per oz). With that kind of a moving target, profitability presents a management challenge. Based in Spokane, WA, Degerstrom employs 85 people at the mine. It is one of the largest heap leach operations in the nation. Last year, 8 Mt (9 million st) of low-grade ore was moved to the leach pads in a two-shift, five-day operation. The current pit being worked produces 218 kt/m (240,000 stpm) of leaching ore. Ore fragmentation critical The gold bearing ore has no defined patterns or seams. It is an igneous intrusion resulting from volcanic activity. It occurs spontaneously throughout the range. To recover the gold, areas are staked out and core samples are taken and analyzed. These data determine if the ore is rich enough to mine. Once mining begins, an average of 150 holes are drilled and blasted on a two-day rotation. Five Ingersoll-Rand T4s drill on a 4- x 4.5-m (14- x 15-ft) spacing to a 7.6-m (25-ft) depth. "When we first came to this site, we drilled on a 3.6- x 3.6-m (12- x 12-ft) pattern," said Paul Baker, superintendent for N.A. Degerstrom Contracting. "We did some experimenting using a high density emulsion in the bottom of the hole and filling the rest with regular Anfo." The high density emulsion saved the company on overall drilling and blasting costs since the holes could be spaced on a wider pattern and still achieve the high degree of fragmentation needed for leaching. Blasting is important because the gold lays in the natural strata of the rock. Also, the ore is not crushed before it goes to the leach pads. So complete fragmentation is critical. Terrain dictates loading/hauling system The shot ore is worked in 6 m (20 ft) benches by two Caterpillar 245 front shovels equipped with 3 m3 (4 cu yd) buckets, a 992C wheel loader with a 12.6-m3 (16.5-cu yd) bucket, and a 988E high lift fed by a D9H. A Caterpillar D10 tractor trap dozes to the loader. According to Baker, the 6 m (20 ft) bench is an efficient lift for the front shovel and the wheel loader. In tight quarters or in a pocket of ore, Degerstrom uses the 245s. For high production areas, the wheel loader is used. The hauling fleet includes 28 Cat 773 off highway trucks. The 45 t (50 st) trucks are seven pass loaded by the 245s with a 25-second cycle time per bucket load. The 992C loads the trucks in two passes in less than 30 seconds. The cycle time is four to five minutes for a 1.2-km (4000-ft) haul on grades that average 10%. Grades, in some places, exceed 16%. "We use the 773s because they have a low weight-to-horsepower ratio - that's what you need in steep country," Baker said. The trucks haul the shot ore to the leach pad. Currently, Degerstrom is working a pad that has a capacity for 5 Mt (5.5 million st) of ore. Building the leach pads The base of the pads resemble a large drainage basin. They take about one month to construct. A 0.3-m (1-ft) layer of impervious bentonite clay is hauled in and leveled by a Cat D9H tractor. A 30-mm (1.2-in.) PVC liner is then laid in place on top of the clay base. It, in turn, is covered with tailings from an old on-site mill. Degerstrom uses the tailings to protect the liner from tears when the ore is dumped. The ore is leveled and built up in 9 m (30 ft) lifts by the D9H. The tractor rips the top layer. Then, a network of plastic irrigation pipe is put in place to distribute a cyanide solution over the surface. The leaching solution percolates through the ore and dissolves the gold. The solution drains from the pads and is pumped to a 22.7-ML (6-million gal) pregnant solution holding pond. The liquid then goes through two separate filtration units. One unit removes entrained solids and the other side adds a zinc dust to precipitate the gold. This is collected on filters. The affluent then returns to a solution holding pond for redistribution through the pipeline network. Typically, 80% of the pad's potential recovery takes place in the first 30 days of leaching. The process stops when the ambient temperature falls below the cyanide's freezing level. And each pad has a leach cycle of four to five years before recovery values decline to a point where further leaching becomes uneconomical. At Zortman, it takes 9 t (10 st) of ore to produce 31 g (1 oz) of gold. It is therefore critical to keep total production costs down and efficiency high.

Jan 1, 1986

By R. Fedel-Moen, R. W. L. Kimber, B. D. Williams, S. R. Ragusa

The use o f cyanide to extract gold from ores is widespread. In the process of extracting gold, cyanide may form metal cyanide complexes with a variety of other metals present in the ore. This study was carried out to investigate the biodegradation of the Cu(I)-cyanide complex and tetracyanonickelate under varying pH and nutrient additions. Detailed studies using shake flask cultures and bioreactors showed that naturally occurring bacteria residing on gold-leach-pad ore uti¬lized the Cu(I)-cyanide complex (CuCN) and tetracyano-nickelate, Na2(NiCN4), as carbon and/or nitrogen sources. Ammonium-nitrogen (NH4+-N) and/or cyanate (CNO-) accumulated in solution as the metal cyanide complexes were degraded. The accumulation of cyanate as a product is a concern due to its toxicity. Degradation rates were increased if a growth substrate (peptone, 0.1%) was added to the medium or if bioreactors were primed with peptone before addition of the metal-cyanide complex. Tetracyanonickelate was degraded at pH 8 without added peptone, but it was not degraded at pH 10. The addition of peptone was required for degradation of the Cu(I)-cyanide complex at pH 8 and pH 10. At pH 8, the addition of peptone resulted in the accumulation of cyanate, whereas, at pH 10, cyanate was not detected in the cultures. Biodegradation of metal-cyanide complexes was faster (approximately 1.5 to ten times faster) in bioreactors than in shake flask cultures. The addition of peptone was not required for degradation of metal-cyanide complexes in bioreactors. However, priming the bioreaetor with peptone resulted in higher metal-cyanide degradation rates over multiple cycles.

Jan 1, 2000

By M. G. Ayat, B. C. Scott

Coal degradation is the breakage of coal particles to finer sizes due to the continuous forces of attrition and gravity to which coal is subjected during mining, handling, and preparation. The objective of this paper is to determine the extent of degradation that a coal slurry experiences when transported through pumps and pipelines. The examination of degradation results for a number of different coal slurries have indicated that the extent of breakage is dependent on the physical properties of coal and the time span of circulation. These results have also indicated that certain size fractions of coal are more susceptible to breakage than others.

Jan 1, 1987

By M. G. Ayat, J. Dasher

Having an interest in coal slurry pipelines from a decade of arguments with Ed Wasp and crew at Bechtel about pumping thicker slurries slower, I immediately read this article and found nothing in it pertinant to the title. Ayat and Scott pumped five unidentified coals at 9% solids (50%-60% is the area of interest) in a 25-mm (1-in.) pipe around two square elbows through a 76-mm (3-in.) cyclone for up to 60 minutes and sized a large number of samples of unstated size on an unidentified wet screening device. They did not measure power consumption, discharge pressure, flow rate, or give pump tip speed or impeller diameter. They siad the cyclone had a "high" pressure drop (unmeasured) and did much of the degradation (measured) but more or less per unit of energy expended? Hargrove was not measured, so there are no data as to whether it would correlate with degradation. The authors conclude, with no attempt, correlation is "hard to establish." Please experiment before concluding. I am at a loss to know what "increasingly smaller size" means, much less what theory says such particles take "exponentially larger quantities of energy," which the authors neglected to measure. If such experiments without pertinent data or justified conclusions must be published, please attach a pertinant title.

Jan 1, 1990

By M. G. Ayat

I have been following the discussions on coal degradation started by the article "Degradation process in coal slurry pipe-lines," by M.G. Ayat and B.C. Scott. I agree with Mr. Dasher's comments in January that the title of the article was perhaps misleading as the information appeared to pertain more to processing the coal than to transportation. Specifically, the authors' conclude that the cyclone had an important impact on the degradation. Dr. Ferri's comments on degradation in other physical processes was very correct, handling of coal in a turbulent manner has an impact on the size distribution of the coal. This is one reason that when I design a coal system (mine to rail car) I try to minimize the total number of transfer and processing steps consistent with achieving the desired product specifications. Another area, mentioned in passing in the article, the impact of natural causes and the mining step, is of particular interest to me. A mine in West Virginia had a variation of 50% in the -6.35 mm (-0.25 in.) raw coal depending upon the direction of mining. Since it was a single unit mine, this significantly impacted the final product. Two articles on mining's impact on size distribution are: • Stefanko, R., Chopra, I. K., and Ramani, R. V., 1974, "Mining influence on size consistency and washability char¬acteristics of coal," SME Fall Meeting. September; and • Albrecht, M., and Olsen, D., 1980, "Mining methods impact on coal preparation plant design." 1st International Mine Planning and Development Symposium. September. Both articles presented information on variation of size distribution and cleaning plant performance on a coal depending on the mining method used. Both articles considered a single coal seam at one mining operation. Stefanko's article considered continuous and conventional mining of coal in Pennsylvania. Albrecht's article considered surface, underground continuous, and underground hydraulic mining of a coal in British Columbia. Both concluded that mining methods do impact coal characteristics. I agree with Mr. Ayat's comments in reply to Dr. Ferri's discussion, "... degradation is a multi-faceted phenomenon involving many natural and man-made factors." As efforts are being made to produce a higher quality (lower sulfur) coal, this topic becomes even more important

Jan 1, 1990