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By J. Jolly

THIS short note on the probable character of the organic sulfur compounds in coal can do no more than indicate lines of research. We have no new experimental work to describe, nothing comparable in value with the careful studies of American coals by Powell and Parr1 and Yancey and Frazer.2 A study of the manner in which sulfur compounds exist in British coals (and their behavior on heat treatment) is rendered increasingly necessary by the fact that the British reserves of good coking coals of reasonably low sulfur content are fast being depleted. We believe that it is essentially by a study of the modes of formation, occurrence, and decomposition of the various types of inorganic and organic sulfur compounds in coal that it will be possible, with hope of success, to attack the problem of purifying coals, otherwise eminently suitable for coking, from these objectionable ingredients. Sulfur, so far as is at present known, does not normally occur in the free state in the coal conglomerate, but is chiefly distributed, irregularly, in three forms: 1. As primary constituents of the coal conglomerate, organic in nature and probably associated with those molecular complexes that have resulted from the degradation of the proteins of the plant tissues responsible for the formation of the coal mass. These constituents can be classed as "organic sulfur." 2. As metallic sulfides, e.g., iron pyrites. 3. As metallic sulfates, e.g., calcium sulfate and ferrous sulfate. (The occurrence of these compounds varies with the occurrence and degree of degradation of class 2.)

Jan 3, 1925

By M. D. Hassialis

THE claim is made in a number of patents1,2,3,4 that some compounds of the class known as aryl sulphides have collector properties. One of these patents generalizes the claim to include all aryl sulphides, whose generic formula is R-S¬R[=]-R’ (where x = r,2, . . . ), with the restriction that if the aromatic radicals R, R' contain substituent groups these groups may not contain nitrogen or oxygen. Moses, Hess, and Perkins cite as evidence for their claims the results of flotation tests on Anaconda and Miami copper ores using Biphenyl sulphide, ditolyl disulphide and dinapthyl disulphide as collectors. The use of alkyl sulphides as collectors has also been reported5 with the conclusion that the alkyl sulphides are better collectors than the corresponding aryl sulphides. The experimental work cited appears to confirm this contention. In order to test these claims with respect to diphenyl sulphide, a sample, purchased from the Eastman Kodak Co., was tested against Anaconda ore. The procedure followed was that of Moses, Hess, and Perkins. A sample of ore weighing 500 grams was placed in a laboratory ball mill. To this was added 220 grams of water, 0.06 grams of commercial diphenyl sulphide (1/4 lb. per ton of ore), and 0.8 grams of lime (3 lb. per ton of ore). The material was ground until 93 per cent passed a 65mesh screen. This pulp was diluted to 16 per cent solids. A sample of the diluted pulp was placed in a Minerals Separation type of laboratory flotation cell. After a 2-min. agitation period, pine oil was added and the froth collected for a period of 15 min. This test recovered 68 per cent of the copper, with a ratio of concentration of 6.8: 1. The tailing assay was 0.3 per cent Cu. Moses, Hess and Perkins attained a recovery of 75 per cent, with a ratio concentration of 12: 1. Although these results do not compare too well with those of Moses, Hess and Perkins, subsequent tests showed an improvement, as judged by vanning of the tails. It is concluded, therefore, that the patent results are confirmed. CONTACT-ANGLE TESTS In order to study the response of the various minerals, found in Anaconda ore, to commercial diphenyl sulphide, some contact-angle tests were made. Polished particles of bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and quartz were conditioned for 15 min. in a suspension of diphenyl sulphide in water. The concentration of this suspension was 0.284 grams per liter, this being the concentration of this reagent in the ball mill. The conditioned particles were rinsed with water (not rubbed with filter paper or boiled linen) and then tested against an air bubble in the bubble machine, with the following results: born-

Jan 1, 1943

By George Mixter

MINING, in contrast to manufacturing, deals with a wasting asset. That which is taken out of the ground is gone, the property is depleted to that extent, and will eventually become exhausted of profitable ore. So the life of a mining company is dependent upon the ability of its management to develop improved methods to permit extraction at a profit of the lower-grade ores which remain, to extend by intelligent exploration the limits of its known ore bodies, and to find and acquire new properties to take the place of those that, for one reason or another, are no longer operated. Its history is a story of constant change, of the working out of properties here and the acquisition and development of properties there, to maintain the vitality of the whole. It is a story of estimating with the tools and the knowledge available the location and extent of hidden ore bodies and of devising the means of extracting

Jan 1, 1948

By Lawrence F. Schubert

Instrumentation is not a stranger to the minerals processing industry. In fact, very few plants now exist that haven't to one extent or another adapted operations to instrumentation. But with the rapid growth of such controls has come the need for effective departments composed of men trained to maintain and repair the instruments; here is where many firms fall short. The importance of the role an instrument department should play is underscored by the omnipotent effects which instruments often exert over an operation. Reserve Mining Co. is an example: while instrumentation at this taconite plant represents approximately 2% of the process equipment cost, a breakdown of instruments may result in the ineffective use (or complete shut-down) of the other 98% of plant investment.

Jan 7, 1966

By A. J. R. Curtis

THE Portland Cement Association was organized more than a third of a century ago by a group of cement manufacturers, to do cooperatively the educational and research work needed to ensure proper use of their product. Specifically, the Association has a threefold purpose: (1) to search out facts to ensure the best possible service from concrete; (2) to give the widest possible circulation to facts affecting the use of concrete; (3) to urge practical application of those facts on actual building projects. An organization of technically trained men conducts many research projects in the Association laboratories, interprets their findings and applies them practically in the field. The net effect of this work has been to improve the design and prolong the life of roads, bridges, industrial, commercial and public buildings, homes, farm structures and concrete products. The results of this technical research and experimentation are made available to the entire construction industry through bulletins and reports. Information is also released to the general public through newspapers, magazines and Association publications. In addition to a1 technical staff in the general office in Chicago, the Association has district offices in 22 cities. Field engineers cover 37 states, the District of Colum-bia and British Columbia, to give service to users of Portland cement.

Jan 1, 1937

By A. J. R. Curtis

THE Portland Cement Association was organized more than a third of a century ago by a group of cement manufacturers, to do cooperatively the educational and research work needed to ensure proper use of their product. Specifically, the Association has a threefold purpose: (1) to search out facts to ensure the best possible service from concrete; (2) to give the widest possible circulation to facts affecting the use of concrete; (3) to urge practical application of those facts on actual building projects. An organization of technically trained men conducts many research projects in the Association laboratories, interprets their findings and applies them practically in the field. The net effect of this work has been to improve the design and prolong the life of roads, bridges, industrial, commercial and public buildings, homes, farm structures and concrete products. The results of this technical research and experimentation are made available to the entire construction industry through bulletins and reports. Information is also released to the general public through newspapers, magazines and Association publications. In addition to a technical staff in the general office in Chicago, the Association has district offices in 22 cities. Field engineers cover 37 states, the District of Columbia and British Columbia, to give service to users of Portland cement. ACCIDENT PREVENTION During the early part of the century, there began a complete transformation in the processes of manufacturing cement. Electricity, with its attendant hazards, was beginning to replace steam; huge rotary kilns and tube mills were being substituted for the vertical kiln and "coffee grinder" mill. Only a few far-sighted leaders realized the import of these innovations, and they also recognized the fact that workmen must be protected against the hazards of the new machinery. By their sincerity and firm purpose they infused into the whole industry the concept of industry's responsibility for safeguarding employees. Even before effective compensation laws had been passed in most states, the Portland Cement Association had assigned to an Accident

Jan 1, 1937

By C. A. Heiland

THERE once was a little kid, whose lot was a very tough one until he grew up. His parents did not have much in common; from all indica-tions, it is probable that the child was not wanted. His father Geology and his mother Physics separated shortly after his birth, which occurred during the World War amid a smoke screen of mathematics. He was kicked around a great deal. His parents could not agree on a name, and they finally christened him "Geophysics," for short. His relatives insisted that the name should be "Geophysical Prospecting," "Geophys-ical Exploration" or "Exploratory Geophysics"; though the youngster has grown up by now, this battle is still going on. His father did not think the child would amount to much until he began to show some unexpected talents, which were acquired, no doubt, from his mother Physics. His progress caused his father no little worry, and he began to wonder whether his offspring would help him in his business when he grew up or would set up shop in competition with the old man. His aunt Petroleum watched his growth with benevolent interest; his uncle Mining remained rather skeptical and cousin Civil Engineering not only assumed the attitude of the man from Missouri but was not much con-vinced even after he had been shown. Making a long story short, the kid decided that he had to stand on his own feet and get along as best he could. Having come from a good family . he possessed some outstanding characteristics such as resourcefulness and a reasonable amount of business ability. He therefore decided that it would be to his advantage to follow in his father's and mother's foot-steps as much as possible, and develop the good qualities of both. As a result, the youngster did fairly well for himself, and his relatives decided that it might be to their advantage to be on better terms with him. Father Geology had come to the conclusion that the boy could be very helpful to him and now wanted him to live in his house. His mother, who had brought him through the teething and measles stages, felt quite capable of bringing up the boy without the help of his father; and, as the fairer sex will do, would confide to a neighbor every now and then that his

Jan 1, 1938

By W. B. Daly

THE sampling and estimating of, the orebodies in the mines of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., at Butte, have been made a part of the work of the geological department. The wisdom of this assignment is apparent, considering the organization of that department, the nature of, its records, and the scope of its regular work. In the first place, the district is divided into units of two or three mines each and a geologist is assigned to each group. His trips to all the working places are frequent and he follows the mining operations closely. His notes are graphic and detailed. In the office, he posts his notes on the standard maps and sections and on special maps for correlation purposes. With the approval of the chief or assistant chief geologist, he recommends development work underground and watches its progress. This gives the geological department a precise knowledge of the character of each orebody. Sampling is done by one or two samplers at each mine working under a chief sampler stationed in the geological office. The chief sampler has access to all the office maps and is in frequent consultation with the geologists; his instructions to the samplers are issued with the approval of the chief or assistant chief geologist. Not only is it important that the geologic information be used to direct the sampling but the reports of the samplers and the records kept by their chief are useful to the geologist, who needs them in his work of I estimating ore reserves and deciding on recommendations for development work. The sampler, moreover, is at the mine every day and makes a daily report, which keeps the geologist in close touch with 'the progress of development work. The sampler is attached to the mine office and thus comes under the jurisdiction of the operating department. In fact, any special orders prepared by the chief sampler are submitted to the general superintendent, after approval by the geological department. The mine foreman may.

Jan 2, 1922

It is well to bring before you again the chief purpose of the National Research Council and of this its Division of Engineering, to stimulate others to make researches rather than to make them ourselves, because a given amount of our energy spent in inciting others will accomplish far more than if applied in executing them ourselves. This is because there are scattered through the numberless governmental, educational, and industrial laboratories of the country a very great number of investigators not only capable of being stimulated, but willing to aid in cooperative broadly planned research rather than to follow the haphazard methods of the past. Taken collectively, these laboratories and their personnel can produce an annual crop of knowledge the value of which is of the order rather of billions than of millions of dollars. I invite you to regard this potential product as a crop, to be planned, fertilized, harvested, and distributed with the sane order of statesmanship, the same breadth of view, with which we treat any other great human product or achievement, whether agricultural, industrial, or transportational.

Jan 1, 1919

By F. B. JEWETT

TWENTY FIVE years of doing, finding, and encouraging others to do scientific research in' industry, and of organizing the machinery for the` smooth 'and effective conduct of such research, have left me with a feeling that so far as this branch of human activity is concerned the problems in 'essence are- not, materially 'different from those met elsewhere. Years ago, in a less mature period of life, I may have thought that the effective industrial research man was a being somewhat different from his fellow workers in adjacent 'fields, but I have long since 'changed my views. The rank and' file of the modern industrial research organization are relatively easy to find, though some¬times difficult to get in sufficient numbers. Mistakes in choosing them are not particularly serious to the or¬ganization, however unfortunate they may be for the misplaced individual who persists too long in the wrong environment. The reason for this is obvious from the fact that, taken by and large, the work of the rank and file is at best necessarily a work of detail done under guidance of the more experienced. In this respect the situation of the rank and file in an industrial research organization is not different from that class in any other group activity, whether concerned with industry, the university, or the church. This does not mean, however, that we are not all anxious to have the best possible material obtainable in the rank and file, or that we are indifferent to the utmost of encouragement and stimulation to its individual members.

Jan 1, 1929

By H. D. Hagen, C. E. Nelson

14.1-1. Coal Mining. CORPORATE STRUCTURE. Most coal companies that operate surface mines had their beginnings as basically one-man organizations, with all decisions and controls in the hands of the founder. At the early stage of the company development, it is usually quite possible for one man to handle all management functions as the mining operations generally are quite localized and the founder can have a first-hand knowledge of all facets of the operation. However, with continued growth, the entrepreneur finds that he must limit himself more and more to the top level of management and delegate the day-to-day operation to others. An organization must be developed that provides not only for current operations but also for continued growth of the company through acquisition of coal reserves in market areas that the company desires to serve. In general, a successful coal company engaged in surface mining must develop an organization consisting of the following departments or divisions: operations, sales, engineering, exploration, land, purchasing, financial, and legal. Of course, all of these departments are not required in the beginning. When the company is small, there is much overlapping of functions. For instance, the operating department will handle purchases and the engineering department will also handle exploration and land functions. A growing surface-mining company has generally evolved through the various stages of development into an organization that is typical of large mining companies. An examination of a typical company and its various departments and their functions should give an insight into the organizational trends of surface mining companies. Having begun as a typical one-man organization, a company of today can be highly centralized, with firm control of all phases of the company's operations in the executive offices. This is achieved by having all department heads (Fig. 14.1-I), as well as the senior management, based in central offices.

Jan 1, 1968

By Bradley Stoughton

A LL over our great country I have been privileged to see, during the last six weeks, the manifestation of a new spirit among engineers. Partly under the inspiration of leaders whose influence has been felt not only nationally, but internationally, - partly through the recognition of the service that engineers have been able to render to the nation during the recent crisis, a new self-consciousness has been acquired by the individuals, and now this self-consciousness seeks expression in opportunities for service and participation in public affairs. The engineer . no longer sees himself a mere reservoir of information to be tapped when some one is in need of cold facts, no. more an administrator of mere material things, but a potential administrator of- public affairs, a citizen and a human being, with the responsibilities, as well as the privileges of citizenship.

Jan 1, 1920

By C. G. Brehm

THE anthracite-producing region is in the northeastern section of Pennsylvania, and has an area of approximately 484 square miles. It is divided geographically into three separate fields, known as the Northern, Middle and Southern. The Northern field, with Wilkes-Barre approximately at its center, is a basin about 60 miles long and almost 6 miles wide at its greatest distance across. Generally speaking, it may be said that the coal meas-ures in this field lie horizontally, or on slight pitches, and consist of from 11 to 19 veins of coal, varying in thickness from several inches to several feet. The intervening strata between veins may be composed of slate, clay, rock or shale, or a combination of several, and are sometimes very thin. This condition often causes a treacherous roof, therefore roof sup-port and the attending hazard of mining are problems of concern. The Middle field is made up of a number of small basins of not very great depth, and the measures, which are in like number to those of the Northern field, are varying inclinations running from nearly flat to steep pitches.

Jan 1, 1938

By T. F. Adams, D. P. Morse

Tunneling is primarily an excavating cycle consisting of a sequence of operations: drilling, shooting, ventilating, mucking, and erecting supports, if necessary. However, the type and condition of the ground that is being worked, as well as the size and shape of the tunnel, determine the rate of advance. In addition developments in drilling, ventilation, mucking, and haulage equipment have contributed to faster tunneling. Geology: This discussion will be limited primarily to rock tunnels or those which require the use of explosives, and the cost and hazards depend primarily on the condition of the rock which may be broken, decomposed, and contain water with gas. Advance geological study is an important part of any tunnel work and helps to minimize serious miscalculations. The geology itself, at best, is a matter of experience and prediction and it is not so much a matter of the types of rock the tunnel may go through, but a knowledge of the class and intensity of the rock defects that may be encountered.

Jan 4, 1958

By Elmer R. Kaiser

Cooperative research is an established and important activity of modern business by which whole industries can advance on a broad front. The economy of jointly sponsored research as well as the limited research talent available direct attention to the advisability of projects in which a number of companies participate. After outlining the growth of industrial research, the paper discusses one successful method for organizing and financing group research programs. A systematic procedure is advocated by which engineers and scientists can bring to management practical plans for cooperative research and development programs.

Jan 3, 1950

By C. G. Dunn

WITH respect to theories of recrystallization in metals plastically deformed, it has been said that the present status of this subject is far from satisfactory.1 It may also be said that before any mechanism of recrystallization for metals and alloys can be set forth in a satisfactory manner, there must be made available considerable data on orientation changes that occur during the deformation and recrystallization processes. Although extensive data have been published on recrystallization in single crystals and in polycrystalline specimens, more results of a type that can be classified according to simple orientation changes would be desirable in this complex field. It might even be said that before classifications are made according to types of orientation changes, it may be possible to classify a considerable amount of data into certain kinds of orientation states if groups of common or nearly common orientation occur. Methods for computing the probability of occurrence for various types of groups have been published2 and it has been pointed out in particular that it should be possible to analyze orientation data for high-order twin relationships between old and new grains even when agreement is not at all exact. In this connection, work on recrystallization in silicon ferrite reported in a paper concerned with complex groups of annealing twins' indicated that some data were consistent with primary nucleation occurring according to a second-order or a third-order twin transformation. However, further work in this latter direction was definitely needed. It is, therefore, the purpose of the present paper to report data and analyses for primary nucleation in silicon ferrite following small deformations that have been carried out at the Pittsfield Works' Laboratory of the General Electric Co. Analyses have been made with the aid of standard groups of twins that are reported elsewhere .4 PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The material used in the present investigation was taken' from the same heat of steel as that used in a prior report.3 The finished strip in both cases was made by the Allegheny-Ludlum Steel Corporation according to methods that produce a high degree of preferred crystal orientation. Samples with large grains had the following composition: 3.45 per cent Si, 0.003 C, 0.008 P, 0.020 S, 0.075 Mn, 0.031 Al and 0.072 Cu. Thickness of specimens was 0.012 inches. Plastic deformation was produced by cold-rolling the samples on a mill with

Jan 1, 1945

By James K. Stanley

PREFERRED orientation, particularly in irons and low-carbon steel, is a phenomenon that is both of considerable importance and theoretical interest. At times it is a liability and at other times an asset. In deep-drawing operations, preferred orientation is extremely undesirable because it necessitates trimming operations and increases scrap loss. Furthermore, oriented metals are likely to crack more easily than randomly oriented material because the forming of symmetrical and unsymmetrical shapes out of preferentially oriented metals and alloys increases the probability of rupture in regions of high stress, owing to differential ductility.1 In the electrical industry, on the other hand, preferentially oriented silicon irons are in demand for transformer application because of the improved magnetic permeabilities in the rolling direction.2 This phenomenon of preferred orientation in soft magnetic materials has been responsible for the tremendous improvement in transformer design and construction in recent years. Directional properties in metals have received a great deal of attention in the metallurgical literature,3-9 in which much of the information reported about orientation has been obtained by conventional methods, mechanical properties and X-rays. A wealth of data has been obtained and often at a great expenditure of time. The recent introduction of the magnetic torque measurements on ferromagnetic materials provides a very simple and rapid method of evaluating orientation. The judicious use of the method can supply important in- formation, but it should be borne in mind that such studies must be supplemented by X-rays, optical methods,10 and etch and pressure figures" to get a rational under- standing of the orientation phenomena. No claims are made that the magnetic torque of evaluating orientation will reveal the behavior of the metal in deep drawing. For this purpose the accepted tests for deep-drawing quality must be used. For a good drawing 'stock, which must have low impurities, desirable grain size, ductility, strength, hardness, good surface, random orientation, and good recrystallization behavior, it cannot be expected that any simple test will be satisfactory for appraising all the factors. The only factor on which the magnetic method can be used is orientation, which is, of course, of considerable importance. When directionality can cause a 10 to 15 per cent change in tensile strength and a IOO to 300 per cent change in tear length,12 it goes without saying that a reliable as well as rapid method for detecting these changes would be desirable. There are certain inherent advantages in testing orientation by the torque method: The method is rapid with the proper type of equipment; no elaborate preparation of specimens is required-it is only necessary punch or machine a disk of the sheet material and insert it into the testing device.

Jan 1, 1943

By Eugene P. Pfleider

Research indicates that the cube diamond is a superior stone for drill bits. It can be oriented to combine a long cutting edge with structural strength and high resistance to wear. Test bits set with preferred orientation give double the bit life at astoundingly low diamond loss in comparison to oriented octahedral diamonds.

Jan 10, 1953

By Mehl, Robert F.

IT has been shown by numerous studies that the orientations of new metal crystals are determined by the orientations of the crystals in the original matrix, whether these new crystals are formed by recrystalliza-tion, by precipitation from solid solutions, or by transitions in the solid state. The orientations of crystals formed by recrystallization of cold-worked worked metals that bear preferred orientations are occasionally simply related to the initial preferred orientation; often, however, the relation-ship is not simple, but complicated and obscure in origin.1 The orientations of crystals formed by precipitation from solid solu-tions have been shown by many studies in this and other countries to be determined by the orientation of the crystals of the solid solution stable at the higher temperatures, though here again complicated cases have been found and no general theory is available .2 Related to this latter class

Jan 1, 1934

By Bartlett W. Paulding

Since its introduction to the petroleum industry in 1949 by Clark,1 hydraulic fracturing or "hydrafracing" has developed into a widely respected and useful technique for increasing production from petroleum reservoirs. Even then, Clark described production increases of from 6 to 100 barrels of oil per day (bopd). Since that time, others have described treatments in which production increased from 12 to 456 bopd, from only a show to 40 bopd;2 from 48 to 219 bopd; 3 from 500 to 1400 bopd and from a show to 192 bopd.4 Although representative of only a few of many successful hydraulic fracturing operational6 these increases in production attest to the past and potential value of the hydrafracing technique to the petroleum industry. The technique has received a considerable amount of theoretical and experimental attention.1, 5-20 Unfortunately, however, the degree of general understanding of the mechanics of hydraulic fracturing is still inadequate to solve many recurring problems. The practicing engineer is plagued with difficulties in predicting such factors as: (1) the required pressure and viscosity of the fracturing fluid to not only induce the fracture but to control the extent of its growth, (2) the strength characteristics and amount of proppant to include in the fluid so that the fracture is held open once the fluid pressure is decreased, and (3) the volume of the reservoir influenced by the induced fractures and the resulting increase in production. A major cause of these difficulties is the uncertainty associated with determining the orientation of the hydraulically induced fractures. One's natural conclusion in considering the problem is that the orientation of the fracture would depend on several variables, as, for example, the relationship between the viscosity and injection rate of the fluid and the

Jan 1, 1968