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By D. E. FOCG, A. E. Wells

When the United States entered the World War governmental agencies found little definite knowledge available as to the exact capacity of each sulphuric acid plant in the United States to manufacture acid under the stress of a great emergency. It is true that on account of the demand for acid for the manufacture of munitions for the Allies, prior to the entrance of this country into the war, most of the acid plants near industrial centers in the Eastern and Northern States were running at or nearly their maximum capacity, but, . for various reasons, many plants in these States and plants in other districts were not. For a number of years statistics as to the production of acid by the plants of the country were compiled by the United States Geological Survey, but obviously such figures did not give information as to the maximum capacities that might be available for meeting the he.a vy war ·requirements, or as to the steps that would have to be taken to bt-ing these capacities into use. During the summer and early fall of 1917 various attempts were made to obtain the desired information, but no satisfactory or complete data were obtained. Late in 1917, under the authority granted to the Bureau of Mines by the explosives act, the Director of the Bureau of Mines directed A. E. Wells, metallurgist of the bureau, to uiake a complete survey of the situation. Mr. Wells personally conferred with officials of the acid companies and visited most of the acid plants in the North that are east of the Mississippi River. The information obtained through this personal survey, together with that obtained through the ready cooperation of the subcommittee on ncids, and the subcommittee on fertilizers of the Committee on Chemicals of the Council of National Defense, enabled the preparation of a report containing the desired data concerning the sulphuric acid industry. This report was made immediately available to the War Industries Board and to those offices in the War and Navy Depart- ments that were most directly concerned in planning the explosives program and in obtaining the necessary supplies to produce the explosives. Beginning with this survey and report, the sulphuric acid section of the war minerals investigations of the Bureau of Mines took an active part in all matters pertaining to the sulphuric acid industry during the remainder of the war. Mr. Wells, the chief of the section, was appointed an associate chief of the sulphur, pyrite, and sulphuric acid sections of the War Industries Board. .Also, by this direct contact with the War Industries Board, the data obtained by Messrs. R. R. Hornor, H. A. Buehler, a.nd 0. Lindstrom, who were in charge, for the bureau, of the investigations concerning the supplies of pyrite and sulphur, were constantly made available to all interested Government agencies. D. E. Fogg, of New York City, was appointed chemical engineer to the sulphuric acid section to make special investigations relating to the acid industry, especially the possible utilization, in an emergency, of those sources of raw material.not then being used. Mr. E. E. Corbett, of Brooklyn, N. Y., was appointed chemical engineer to make investigations concerned primarily ,vith the conservation of acid. Direct and intimate contact with the industry was had through the close cooperation with the committee on acids of the Chemical Alliance, this committee during the greater part of 1918 occupying rooms with the acid section of the bureau. With the ending of the war and the close o:f the active work of the acid section of the bureau, the suggestion was made by many interested parties that a bulletin be prepared giving some qf the fun. damental and most important facts regarding the sulphuric acid industry, including a discussion of the technical :features of the manufacture of acid. During the war the bureau received -a vast number of inquiries in regard to various phases of the industry, a.nd this fact also made such a bulletin seem desirable. Therefore, the present bulletin was prepared to cover the main facts in regard to the industry in this country, including a discussion of the supplies of sulphur-bearing raw materials, the situation of the acid plants, the principal points in regard to manufacturing processes, and the uses of the acid. No attempt has been ma.de to discuss at length the manufacturing processes, as details differ more or less at the different plants and in general are carefully guarded by the acid ·companies. A great deal of the data given in this bulletin may be found in various pub]ications, but this is the first publication in which such data have been assembled and made readily available. Most of the data were obtained directly from observation and from cooperating acid companies or from individuals who had been or are now engaged in acid manufacturing and were liberal and generous in making their information available for publication. Care has been exercised to publish no data that were obtained as confidential by the bureau's representatives. The average acid manufacturer may be already more or less acquainted with most of the information presented in this bulletin, yet it is believed that the bulletin will be of value to those who wish to obtain a. general review of the present condition, both the economic and technical, of the sulphuric acid industry in the United States.

Jan 1, 1920

By Andrew Brown

"In recent years operators of brown-ore mines have shown increasing interest in .the reclamation of ore heretofore lost in tailing ponds. In January and February.1945 the author made a preliminary survey of the ponds in the Russellville district, Franklin County, Ala. The Russellville district (fig. 1) was chosen for the preliminary work because it contains many large ponds in a comparatively restricted area. All important properties in the district were visited with Charles R. Wilson of Russellville, who has been familiar with the Franklin County brown-ore industry since 1890; with Edmund Craddock and W. S. Blackburn, managers of the two washers now operated near Russellville by Shook & Fletcher Supply Co., and with S. A. Britton, manager of the Sloss-Sheffield Steel & Iron Co. washer. The larger ponds were measured roughly and tonnages estimated. and samples taken from different areas were analyzed and beneficiated at the Southern Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines; Tuscaloosa, Ala.The ponds explored were the Sloss No.1 (Ensley); the Sloss No. 8, and the Sloss No. 4-5, which are among the largest in the district and so located, within an area of .three square miles (see fig. 2), that ore from all of them could be-treated,one centrally located washer.Actual work was begun on May 9. Between that date and June 30, when field work was completed, 246 holes in ponds were drilled and sampled, and 15 additional holes were put down primarily to test the drill .in different types of ground with a view to its possible utilization in other types of prospecting. Samples from all holes were analyzed for iron content; samples from 13 holes were sized and analyses made for each size fraction, and six large samples have been composited for beneficiation tests.Brown iron ore has been mined in the Russellville district since 1815, when the first blast furnace in Alabama was built in NW1/4 sec. 10, T. 7 S., R. 12 W., about 3 miles southwest of Russellville (19).-J The furnace was abandoned before the Civil War, and mining continued on a small scale until 1888, when Enoch Ensley began to mine the ridge between Russellville and Pain Creek. His first washer, Ensley No. 1, was about 300 feet south of the junction of the present Tharptown road with the Waco spur of the Southern Railway."

Aug 1, 1946

Real gross national product increased at a larger-than- expected annual rate of 8.3 percent in the first quarter of 1984, with both consumption and investment spending increasing significantly in real terms (table 1). Residential and nonresidential fixed investment increased at annual rates of 25.7 and 14.6 percent during the first quarter of 1984, and investment in nonresidential structures, which declined in 1983, also increased during the first quarter of 1984, nearly attaining its 1982 level. The annual level of personal savings increased $27.7 billion, while the personal savings rate (the ratio of personal savings to disposable income) increased to 5.8 percent during the first quarter. The increase in the personal savings rate comes as welcome news to analysts concerned over the flow of loanable funds to the private sector and the impact on interest rates in 1984 of increased private and Government demands. U.S. Minerals Industry Performance A major upswing in the performance of the metal mining sector occurred during the first quarter of 1984, with production increasing almost 11.2 percent from January to March, The recovery of the metal sector is also reflected in the performance of primary metal industry profits, which were positive during fourth quarter 1983 following seven consecutive quarterly losses (table 1). Two thousand nine hundred more metal mining production workers were employed in February 1984 than in February 1983.

Jan 1, 1984

By Jack Mantel

The goal of this 42-month contract was to increase safety in low-seam underground coal mines through development and in-mine evaluation of a temporary roof support system for roof drills and floor-riding operator compartments for a loader and shuttle car. The program was performed in three phases. During Phase I, state-of-the-art canopy technology was investigated, and preliminary design and mock-up evaluations were performed for temporary roof supports for single-and dual-boom bolters and for transverse-mounted floor-riding canopies for a shuttle car and coal loading machine. The shuttle car and loader canopies were approved for further development, and the design, fabrication, testing, and certification were completed in Phase II. In Phase III, the Bureau of Mines furnished an FMC 6L shuttle car fur use in the evaluation of the canopy for 45 shifts. The shuttle car canopy was evaluated at Virginia Crews Coal Company in West Virginia. Efforts to secure an evaluation site for the loader canopy were unsuccessful. The loader canopy was shipped to Bruceton for possible future evaluation.

Jan 1, 1985

By Jr. Koch

As a part of a larger study of the distribution of metals within ore deposits, the geometry of distribution of gold, silver, lead, copper, and zinc in five veins of the Fresnillo mine, Zacatecas, Mexico, was established. The purpose was to obtain basic data necessary for evaluation of geological theories about processes of vein formation and useful for practical mining applications in ore estimation and prediction of ore beyond present workings. The Bureau of Mines investigation comprised statistical analysis of 64,000 assay values from some 16,000 mine samples. The samples were taken at 2-meter intervals in drifts exposing the veins through a vertical range of some 750 meters. Within individual veins, the metals are distributed in dome¬like patterns with highest metal contents tending Lo occur in oreshoots at the centers of the developed parts of the veins. However, in the block of ground containing all five veins, base metals define mathematical domes with highest contents near the center; precious metals define mathematical basins or troughs with low contents near the center. The ratio of silver assay values to lead assay values corresponds to two geographically distinct types of mineralization: one in which silver is closely related to lead, and another in which silver is independent of lead. Other metal ratios also vary regularly from one place to another. The statistical methods employed in this study would be useful for other geologists or engineers who need to analyze large amounts of assay or similar numerical data.

Jan 1, 1967

By H. Tomlinson

Fatalities from falls of roof and coal are responsible for the death Of more than 1,000 miners annually in the bituminous coal mines of the United States, or practically one-half of the total fatalities In and about these mines. The men are killed by falls singly or in small groups and little or no publicity is given these accidents as they lack the spectacular features of gas and dust explosions. As a result, the public and even the miners have the impression that accidents from falls of roof and coal are just one of the unavoidable hazards of the coal-mining industry. This belief is not true. Accidents caused by falls can be avoided largely by the application of sound engineering principles, by education, and by proper leadership in the industry, just as gas and dust explosions and accidents caused by explosives have been reduced in recent years. The necessity for studying falls of roof and coal becomes apparent by referring to the following data from a table by Adams and Chenoweth:3

Jan 1, 1933

Geophysical Abstracts 1 - 83 were issued in mimeographed form by the Bureau of Mines; Abstracts 87 - 111 were published in bulletins of the Geological Survey. Abstracts 112 and 113 were issued in mimeographed form by tine Bureau of Mines as Information Circulars 7256 and 7257. 1. GRAVITATIONAL METHODS 7004. Campbell, R. B. Florida's Geological Structure and Gravity. Proc. Florida Acad. Sciences for 1540, Gainesville, Fla., vol. 5, 1541, pp. 73-84.

Jan 1, 1943

By Wilson Blake

This report presents the results of a 7-year Bureau of Mines program to review, revise, and make an effective engineering tool of the microseismic method of determining the stability of rock structures. The program consisted of developing new microseismic equipment and data analysis techniques and extensive field investigations to demonstrate the effectiveness and potential of the broad-band microseismic method. The guidelines for choosing the components of a microseismic system are presented along with approximate cost figures. Different microseismic systems are discussed, including completely automated systems. Procedures for conducting microseismic investigations and analyzing microseismic data are discussed in detail. Field situations which show the full value of the microseismic technique as an engineering tool are described.

Jan 1, 1974

By Bruce McDonald

This report contains the findings of a study to perform a task and skill analysis of roof-bolting operations, with respect to the operational training requirements and to prepare detailed recommendations for the operational training system. The extent of the problem was determined by visiting underground coal mines, interviewing training and safety personnel, observing and interviewing roof-bolter operators, and reviewing present training programs and facilities. In conjunction with the mine visits an extensive literature search was conducted with emphasis on training, mine safety, and accidents involving the roof-bolting operation and roof-bolter operators. A number of training programs and training devices were considered resulting in the development of a recommended training program including training devices to be used and establishing training objectives.

Jan 1, 1977

By F. L. Wideman

This paper lists resources of sulfur in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizons, an area comprising approximately 522,600 square miles, Sources of sulfur occuring within the region are sulfur are, pyrite and pyritic ores, and natural gases and petroleum. Data concerning these sources are presented on a statewide basis. Some of the known deposits of sulfur ore are surficial and of fumerole origin; other deposits have resulted from oxidation of pyrite or sulfide ores of copper, lead, and zinc. The deposits are small and the sulfur is distributed erratically in them. There is a small production from some of the deposits, and the material produced is used as soil conditioner.

Jan 1, 1957

By K. E. Soroka

More than 500 fires are now burning in abandoned coal waste banks and coal deposits in the United States. Once established, such fires can burn for decades, and extinguishing them by conventional methods such as surface sealing to exclude air, excavation to remove fuel, or flushing to cool the fire zone is usually difficult and always expensive. Burnout Control, a technique developed by the Bureau of Mines for the control of abandoned coal fires, involves the accelerated combustion of coal in place with total management of the heat and fumes produced. A burning waste bank or mine is placed under negative pressure relative to the atmosphere, and heat and combustion products are drawn from the combustion zone through an exhaust ventilation system. Heat produced appears as sensible heat in the exhaust, at temperatures as high as 1,0000 C (1,832° F), and could be recovered for the production of steam, hot water, process heat, or electricity. The Bureau's first held field demonstration of Burnout Control was at Calamity Hollow in Allegheny County, PA (near Pittsburgh). Calamity Hollow was the site of an underground mine in the 1900's and was surface mined in the 1940's. In the winter of 1961-62, a fire of undetermined origin was discovered in the exposed coal. In 1963, the Bureau constructed a trench barrier around the fire and a surface seal over the affected area. The fire was isolated but not completely extinguished. In 1979, when the Bureau began work on the Calamity Hollow Mine Fire Project to demonstrate controlled burnout, the fire was still smoldering on the hot side of the trench barrier. The project, which was begun in December 1979 and ended in July 1982, consisted of the design, construction, operation, and subsequent dismantling of a Burnout Control ventilation system. This report is the fifth in a five-part series that describes the Calamity Hollow Mine Fire Project. The first report, part 1, describes the design and construction of the field installation. Part 2 will present the results of a continuous 4-month burnout operation. (Because part 2 involves the analysis of a substantial body of data, it will not be published until after publication of parts 1, 3, 4, and 5.) Part 3 describes the instrumentation used to control and monitor the progress of the burnout operation. Parts 4 and 5 deal with the closeout phase of the field demonstration. Part 4 describes the procedure used to quench the fire, and this part (part 5) describes the final excavation and backfilling of the heated zones. The reports in this series document the Calamity Hollow controlled burnout demonstration which showed that (1) controlled in situ combustion is a feasible method for controlling underground fires in abandoned mines, (2) the resultant thermal exhaust output is sufficient for energy utilization, and (3) water injection-fume exhaustion is a potentially effective method for cooling large underground fire zones. Further investigations of both Burnout Control and the water-injection-fume exhaustion quenching procedure are planned.

Jan 1, 1986

By Robert K. Koch

The Bureau of Mines investigated separating HF from HF-SiF4-H2O mixtures by passing the mixed gases through a sodium fluoride slurry in an airlift scrubber and forming a mixed precipitate of NaHF2 and Na2SiF6. The oven-dried precipitate was thermally dissociated in two stages. The first stage was carried out at 400° C and dissociated NaHF2 to NaF and HF. Condensation and analysis of the evolved HF proved it to be 97 to 99 weight-percent HF containing 0.79 to 0.99 weight-percent H2O and 10 to 93 ppm silicon. The second stage was carried out at 700° C and dissociated Na2SiF6 to NaF (for recycle) and SiF4. The quantity of HF recovered from gaseous HF-H2O-air mixtures decreased with increasing relative H2O concentrations. Air was beneficial when scrubbing extremely dilute wet HF gases. At HF partial pressures of 0.24 and 0.013 mm Hg in the scrubber entrance gases, HF partial pressures of 6.2 x 10-4 and 9 x 10-6 mm Hg were obtained, respectively, in the scrubber exit gases. Scrubber efficiencies were 99.7 and 99.3 percent.

Jan 1, 1966

Mining men and State officials in their efforts to make mining safer are confronted from time to time with various complicated questions. In recent gears these questions have tended to increase with the use of mechanical appliances. Twenty-five years ago electricity had been used but little in mires; today there is practically no other means of transmitting power employed in American mines, except that in metal mines compressed air is used, chiefly for drilling and for operating small portable hoists. In coal mines there has been a great increase in mechanization, which tends to concentrate the work of production in small areas and to increase the local difficulties of ventilation; also, it has intensified locally the hazard from coal dust as well as firedamp in bituminous and subbituminous mines. The answers to the questions that arise are not always obvious, as is shown by the fact that even able, experienced men differ in their opinions of the best, way to overcome a particular mining hazard. The difficulty of .solving the problems is also demonstrated by the varying provisions in mine-safety rules, both in official regulations and in the rules of those mining companies that are endeavoring to do more than follow the letter of the law. Such differences of opinion as to the best way of meeting a difficult situation are often found within the same mining organization, and, similarly, varying opinions are held by different members of the Bureau of Mines staff.

Jan 1, 1937

By Katherine A. Margolis

Refuge Chamber Expectations Training was created by a multidisciplinary team at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to inform miners of what to expect psychologically and physically if it became necessary to use a refuge chamber in a mine emergency. The presentation can be used either for one large group or for individual miners. The training is a multimedia Adobe Flash presentation containing pictures, audio, video, and interviews with miners who have used a refuge chamber in an emergency. It must be run on a computer with Adobe Flash Player installed (refer to the computer system requirements section).

Oct 1, 2009

By E. P. Youngman

The Siamese mining lew, which is cited as "The Sian Mining Act, 2461 (1919)," was enacted February 14, B. E. 2461 (A. D. 1919), corresponding to the ninth year of His Majesty's reign. This act replaces the Sian Mining Act of 1901 and repeals all edicts, decrees, laws, rules, and local customs relating to mining the terms of which are inconsistent with the new law. It shall in- clude all subsequent alterations or additions, as well as all rules issued by the Minister (of Land and Agriculture) already in force or to be brought into force publication in the Government Gazette to be deemed sufficient notice of any modifications or alterations. (Art. 1, 2, 5, 83, and 85.) Legislation passed recently amending certain provisions of the mining law for the purpose of controlling the sale of minerals is the mining amendment act, B. E. 2474, given August 21, 1931 (7th year of the present reign), which repeals provisions of the mining act, B. 3. 2461, and also all rules and regula- tions relating to mining that are inconsistent with the amending ect. Under article 25 of the mining amendment act, B. E. 2474, ministeriel regulations (of the Minister of Agriculture) were issued August 21, 1931. Further recent legislation, brought about by the agreement of the Siamese Government to become a party to the international tin restriction scheme (inter- national tin pool), is the tin and tin ore restriction act (Siam), B. E. 2474, which came into force on September 1, 1921, its purpose being to suspend the

Mar 1, 1933

By D. H. Yardley

A major purpose of this contract was to evaluate a variety of dust suppressants to determine their effectiveness in mitigating dust from taconite tailings. During the course of the investigation tailings from pilot-plant tests of Minnesota copper-nickel ores became available and chemical binders were also tested for dust mitigation effectiveness on this mineralogically different material. Field-test plots were established on taconite tailings and wind tunnel laboratory tests conducted. The laboratory tests consisted of comparing treated and untreated samples at wind velocities of 40 mph using a weight-loss method and direct dust emission measurements. It was shown that the emission of fine dust from taconite tailings, in the range of 4.5 microns to 0.85 microns, could be reduced by 99 percent using certain chemical suppressants. It was also demonstrated that a straight water spray on coarse tailings (3/4" to + 10 mesh) reduced dust emission by 95 percent. Although eight different chemicals were tested, most of the tests were made using Coherex, ammonium lignin sulfonate and sodium silicate. These same dust suppressants were used, singly and in combination on almost 75 field-test plots. The Coherex appears to provide the best results in terms of economics and durability. Wind tunnel tests on treated and untreated Cu-Ni tailings demonstrated that applications of dust suppressants reduced fugitive fine dust by better than 99 percent.

Jan 1, 1980

By Robert W. Van Dolah

The prevention of fires and explosions involving the combustibles and oxidants likely to be found in flight vehicles requires a knowledge of the flammability and related characteristics of these materials. This circular is a compilation of the available charactersilics data for a series of combustibles and oxidants of current interest. Vapor pressure data are presented for fluorine, oxygen, chlorine trifluoride, nitrogen tetroxide, nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, ethylene oxide, hydrogen, ammonia, pentaborane, unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine, monomethylhydrazine, hydrazine, and a series of hydro-carbons including decalin, tetralin, bicyclohexyl and other high-density fuels. In addition, flammability characteristics diagrams are included for each of the fuels in contact with air and, where available, other oxidants (for example, oxygen and nitrogen tetroxide). To assist in understanding these data, sections on definitions and theory and applications have been included. Each section is complete in itself and can be used separately. For example, a reader who is familiar with the general theory of combustion and detonation may find the data sections more useful than the definitions and theory and the application sections. However, since pertinent data are included in these sections, they should also prove useful to the experienced engineer interested in preventing fires and explosions.

Jan 1, 1963

By R. D. Leitch

"INTRODUCTION The character of mine drainage from areas of low pyritic coal3 and from average pyritic coal4 has been investigated, and to complete the study it seemed desirable to select a number of mines situated in high pyritic are as to determine whether or not this variation determines the relative acidity of drainage from mines operating in these characteristic coal fields. Advantage has been taken of some worked on in 1918 by Henry Leighton 5, then Professor of Economic Geology, University of Pittsburgh. He visited and has reported certain areas of high pyritic coal which we also visited during this study. Many of the mines were found to be idle in 1930 and a few were caved shut, apparently for several years. However, samples of the outflow from all mines visited were collected if possible and analyzed, and some general information was gathered for each mine. The map (fig. 1) shows the location of these areas as given by Leighton.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe information and assistance obtained from officials and others at the mines visited during this study are gratefully acknowledged, as well as the original suggestion from Dr. Glenn V. Brown of the State Sanitary Water Board who called attention to the desirability of such a study.Thanks are also especially due the coal laboratory of the United States Bureau of Mines, under the direction of H. M. Cooper, for the analyses and determination of sulphur forms in the large number of solid samples necessary to the work reported,This study has been carried on under the direction of R. R. Sayers, chief, health and safety branch, and W. P. Yant, supervising engineer, Pittsburgh Experiment Station, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines."

Jan 1, 1932

By J. C. Hartley

The most important single operation in mining is the ventilation of underground areas in a manner conducive to the health and safety of employees. Adequate volumes of pure air must be supplied at the working faces, along the haulageways, and wherever men work, so as to dilute and carry away the methane liberated from the coal and adjoining strata, noxious gases evolved by the use of explosives, and the carbon dioxide exhaled by men and formed by oxidation of carbonaceous material, as well as any other gases, and also dusts which may be found in mine workings. A sufficient quantity of air must also sweep abandoned or worked-out areas of the mine to prevent the accumulation of gases, where sealing methods are not utilized to isolate old workings. Air, in a quantity adequate to meet the needs of the particular mine to which it is applied, is necessary, and supplying it can be made very expensive through failure to observe good practices in its direction and apportionment." Leaky stoppings, doors, and overcasts rob the working faces of air and add to the ventilating cost by burdening the fans with fugitive air,

Jan 1, 1944

By J. W. Thompson

OIL AND GAS AS MINERALS. Oil and gas within the ground are minerals and the fact that they have attributes not common to other minerals because of their fugitive nature or vagrant habit, and the disposition to percolate, and the possibility of their escape from beneath one part of the surface to another, does not remove them from the class of minerals. Texas Co. v. Daugherty (Texas), 176 Southwestern, 717, p. 719, May, 1915. OWNERSHIP OF TAILINGS-ABANDONMENT. A corporation engaged in milling- and the reduction of ores deposited the tailings therefrom upon a portion of its own land lying in a gulch through which water flows at times in great volumes and with great force' and notwithstanding all reasonable efforts by dams and otherwise to retain its tailings, the tailings eventually were forced upon the lands of an adjoining owner; these tailings were valuable and their retreatment, intended by the mill owner, profitable; and the fact that the tailings were so washed down upon the lands of the adjoining owner and permitted to accumulate and remain for some considerable time is not sufficient to show an abandonment on the part of the owner of the tailings, where it is clear that the owner had no intention of so doing, but on the contrary, always intended to conserve and retreat the tailings.

Jan 1, 1916