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By Joe N. Magee

As part of the important program of promoting conservation and efficient utilization of petroleum, Bureau of Mines engineers are making studies of secondary oil-recovery projects throughout the United states and publishing reports setting forth the pertinent facts so that others may profit by the experience gained. This report presents the results of a study by engineers of the Bureau of Mines, stationed at Franklin, Pa., of secondary oil recovery in a part of the Cabin Creek field, Kanawha and Boone Counties, W. Va., where natural gas is injected into the reservoir to stimulate oil production. Most oil produced in the Appalachian region at present is obtained from stripper fields in which almost all natural energy has been dissipated. Secondary-recovery methods are used extensively in many oil-producing areas of New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky for recovering oil not produced by primary-production methods. The part of the Cabin Creek field reported in this study is shown in figure 1 and has been designated by the operator as project 4. In 1944 the developed area of the entire field was approximately 4,200 acres, and the area of project 4 was about 600 acres. In the developed area of the project the oil reservoir is in the Berea sandstone and occurs at 2,914 to 3,410 feet.

Jan 1, 1952

By D. K. Ingram, G. L. Mowrey, T. R. Rehak

Problem: Blasting is a hazardous component of surface mining. Serious injuries and fatalities result from improper judgement or practice during rock blasting. This paper describes several fatal injury case studies, analyzes causative factors, and emphasizes preventive measures. Method: This study examines publications by MSHA, USGS, and other authors. The primary source of information was MSHA’s injury-related publications. Results: During the 21-yearperiod from 1978 to 1998, the mean yearly explosive-related injuries (fatal and nonfatal) for surface coal mines was 8.86 (95% CI: 6.38 -11.33), and for surface metal/nonmetal mines 10.76(95% CI: 8.39 - 13.14). Flyrock and lack of blast area security accounted for 68.2% of these injuries. This paper reviews several case studies of fatal injuries. Case studies indicate that the causative factors for fatal injuries are primarily personal and task-related and to some extent environmental. A reduction in the annual injuries in surface coal mines was observed during the ten-year period of 1989 - 1998 [5.80 (95% CI: 2.71 - 8.89) compared to the previous ten-year period of 1979 - 1988 [10.90 (95% CI: 7.77 - 14.14)]. However, such reduction was not noticed in the metal/nonmetal sector, i.e., 9.30 (95% CI: 6.84 - 11.76) for the period 1989-1998compared with 11.00 (95% CI: 7.11 - 14.89) for the period 1979-1988. Discussion: A multifaceted injury prevention approach consisting of behavioral/educational, administrative/regulatory, and engineering interventions merits consideration. Impact on industry: The mining community, especially the blasters, will find useful information on causative factors and preventive measures to mitigate injuries due to flyrock and lack of blast area security in surface blasting. Discussion of case studies during safety meetings will help to mitigate fatal injuries and derive important payoffs in terms of lower risks and costs of injuries.

By A. Wahab Khair, W. M. Devilder

"This paper presents an analysis of fragment size distribution and characteristics of fracture surface in coal cutting using a rotary coal cutting simulator. Coal cutting by a drum type continuous miner was simulated in the laboratory. A series of tests along both the face and butt cleat direction of coal under different operating and in-situ conditions were performed. In each experiment the cut surface was photographed microscopically and the coal cuttings were collected and sized. Data were used to show how and to what extent various parameters effect size distribution of the coal cutting and how this correlates with the characteristics of the fracture surface. This study resulted in establishing a number of distinct correlations between the size distribution and fracture surface. These correlations were primarily based on the degree of interaction between adjacent bits and the amount of bit-coal interaction taking place on the cutting path. Some of the major results of this study are as follows:Zones of bit-coal interactions proved vital toward understanding the effect the conical bit has on the fragmentation process. This in turn led to the identification of areas which are responsible for the production of fines and generation of respirable dust.The various parameters employed in the coal cutting experiments which showed a strong effect on the coal fragment size distribution were: bit type, bit spacing, depth of cut, in-situ stresses, and cleat orientation. Bit angle and cutting head velocity exhibited the least effect and no correlation was established.From this study it is obvious that the key to achieving efficient coal fragmentation is to limit the degree of bit-coal interaction that takes place throughout the bit path while causing maximum interaction between adjacent bits. Accomplishing this not only increases the percentage of large fragments produced but limits the amount of secondary crushing that takes place in the bit path thus resulting in decreasing fines and consequently, the amount of respirable dust generated.Over 2,000 continuous mining machines (introduced in the 1950's) equipped with conical bits or point attach bits account for well over half of the United States' production from underground coal mines. Today, competition in the coal industry has increased, due mainly to coal market conditions and legal restrictions, thus placing an emphasis upon increasing production, efficiency and health/safety of the workers. Mine operators are always interested in finding the most efficient performance of continuous mining machinery to produce the largest amount of size of coal at the lowest cost. An increase of fine material sent to the cleaning plant can seriously overload the plant to the extent that plant efficiencies deteriorate significantly (1). Also, the difficulty and expense of cleaning very small particles often cannot be done economically and thus, thousands of tons of coal are sent to the refuse pile because of costly or ineffective cleaning facilities. It has been said, ""the efficient extraction of coal or rock implies breakage into a size range that contains a minimum quantity of very small sizes"" (2). All known fragmentation theories concur that more fragmentation requires more energy (3). So, the importance of reducing fines is already evident from an outlook upon efficiency.Now, let's consider another view point., duet generation."

Jun 1, 1988

By E. J. Gleim

In keeping with past custom, it is the purpose of this publication to bring up to date previously published lists of equipment that meets safety standards of the bureau of Mines so that the mining industry may be informed as to the development and availability of equipment that can be used safely. The present lists supplement those in Bulletin 543. Permissible Mine Equipment Approved to January 1, 1953; Information Circular 7722, Permissible Equipment Approved During the Calendar Years 1953-54; and Information Circular [40], Permissible Equipment Approved During the Calendar Years 1955-56. These [ew] lists also contain equipment meeting those standards revised since the last listing. A revision of Schedule 16C (now Schedule 16D4/) was officially approved on September 28. 1958. Schedule 29 was another standard revised in 1958. The revision was officially approved on September 8. 1958, and is known as Schedule 29A5/ .

Jan 1, 1960

By Stanton L. Tainter

"INTRODUCTION Molybdenite, the only common mineral and ore of molybdenum, occurs wide¬-spread but is concentrated as the main ore mineral in commercial quantities in only a few known deposits. Consequently, the Government sought additional sources of the minerals as a precaution against the possible shortage of moylbdenm for war uses. Upon request by the War Production Board, the New Year’s Eve and Esperanza properties of the Amargosa Molybdenum & Copper Corp. were investigated by the Geological Survey 3/ and the bureau of Mines 4/. The Survey appraised the mineral potentialities of the deposit and prepared topographic and geologic maps, and the Bureau made a preliminary engineering examination. The deposits were previously examined by W. J. Vanderwilt, consulting engineer. It was largely due to his recommendations that interest was stimulated in the deposits.Development on the New Year’s Eve deposit indicated a small tonnage of sub marginal ore. There was little development at the Esperanza, but surface examination revealed a large volume of rock containing a little molybdenite and a trace of copper in the oxidized outcrops. Some molybdic oxide was noted suggesting that some molybdenite might have been leached from the oxidized outcrops and that the molybdenite content in the sulfide zone might be higher."

Feb 1, 1947

By K. O. Bennington

The thermodynamic properties of synthetic acmite, NaFe3+Si206, were determined by the Bureau of Mines. The enthalpy of formation was determined by hydrofluoric acid solution calorimetry. The values of the standard enthalpy of formation at 298.15 K, ?Hf°298.15, from the elements and from the oxides, ?H°298.15, are ?Hf°298.15 = -615.87 ±0.71 kcal/mole, ?H°298.15 (from oxides) = -32.08 ±0.53 kcal/mole. Various experimental data were combined with other data from the literature to calculate all the related thermodynamic properties in the range of 298 to 1,263 K. The standard Gibbs energy of formation is ?Gf°298.15 = -575.8 kcal/mole.

Jan 1, 1981

By L. F. Willmott

The production operation of a Kerpely gas producer at Louisiana, Mo., is described. This unit, originally designed for airblown operation was modified to permit using oxygen in the blast in place of air. The first runs J for test purposes, were made in June 1950. After this, seven production runs were made and these are the subject of this report. Total gasification time was 245 days. In each run, Nut or Pea coke or mixtures of both at a rate varying from 1,700 to 2,300 pounds per hour was converted with oxygen and saturated steam to produce synthesis gas - primarily carbon monoxide and hydrogen -approximating a predetermined rate of 80,000 to 95,000 cu. ft. per hour and a predetermined hydrogen-carbon monoxide ratio, The requirements per 1,000 std. cu. ft. of (CO + H2) were 21.6 to 30 pounds of coke, 213 to 267 std. cu. ft. of oxygen, and 3L4 to 47.B pounds of steam.

Jan 1, 1955

By L. B. Pankratz, R. Barany, W. W. Weller

Experimental determinations were made of the heats of formation at 298.15 ° K of cuprous ferrite and cupric ferrite ; the heat capacity of cuprous ferrite was measured over the temperature range from 50 ° to 298 ° K and the entropy at 298.15 ° K was evaluated ; the heat contents of cuprous ferrite and cupric ferrite above 298.15 ° K were measured to 1,500 ° K and 1,100 ° K , respectively . These thermodynamic values were combined with other pertinent data to obtain heat and free energy of formation values at high temperatures . The stability of the two ferrites with respect to their constituent oxides is discussed . Thermodynamic values are included for the decomposition of cupric ferrite to form cuprous ferrite , magnetite , and oxygen .

Jan 1, 1964

By Oren C. Baptist

[Several new oilfields have been developed in northwestern Wyoming during the past 10 years, production is obtained from discontinuous, permeable sands enclosed within impermeable shales. The energy to drive the oil to producing wells in supplied by gas in solution in the oil. Most of the wells had high-initial potentials, but rates of oil production have steadily declined, indicating a dissipation of the driving energy and the possibility that large volumes of oil will remain unrecovered in the reservoirs. The studies reported in this paper were undertaken to develop laboratory data of the type most likely to be needed by persons studying the susceptibility of the Newcastle sand reservoir to secondary-recovery methods.]

Jan 1, 1957

By J. P. Capp

The Federal Bureau of Mines and the Alabama Power Company conducted an experiment in underground gasification of coal at Gorgas, Ala. involving the use of hydraulic fracturing to increase the air acceptance of a coalbed for the introduction of combustion air and removal of product gases. Air acceptance is defined as the flow rate of air which can be injected into the coalbed at 65 p.s.i.g. This was the second time the hydraulic-fracturing technique was used at Gorgas. Sand suspended in a heavy oil served as the fracturing fluid in the first experiment; in the second the sand was two to six times larger and was suspended in a water-starch gel. In addition to providing further tests of the underground-gasification process, the purpose of the second experiment was to determine the effects of the larger sand and greater volumes of a water-base fluid on (1) the extent of the fractured area, (2) the air acceptance of the coal, and (3) the rate at which a gasification path could be carbonized (linked) through the coal, and to compare these results with those of the first experiment. The coal was fractured by injecting 11,000 lb. of sand and 33,580 gal. of water and water-gel at 200 to 600 g.p.m. and 900 to 1,000 p.s.i. The fluid fractured the coal and the sand served as a propping agent to hold the cracks and crevices open. Pressures during the fracturing operation at test boreholes indicated that the fracturing fluid extended only about 150 ft. from borehole H, the point of application of the fracture. Injection of air revealed that the air acceptance of the coalbed within this e t was materially increased. On the other hand, increased air acceptance also was noted at boreholes up to 280 ft. from borehole H and at the electrolinking area 300 to 400 ft. away, indicating that the fracture effects extended considerably farther than was evident from observation. Similar effects were noted at approximately the same distances after the first hydraulic fracture.

Jan 1, 1961

By E. W. Newman

The Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, developed the property of the Tungsten Metals Corp. by surface trenching and diamond drilling from November 1940 to June 1941 and from August 1943 to December 1943. The purpose of the work was to determine possible reserves of tungsten in the downward extension and lateral eastern extension of three major tungsten-bearing quartz veins. The property is 50 miles south of Ely, White Pine County, Nev., in the Minerva Mining District. Tungsten ore was discovered in the district in 1915, and mining started in 1916. The tungsten ore bodies occur as shoots in quartz veins that occur along faults in limestone. With the exception of a small-scale leasing operation in 1932, the property was idle from 1919 until 1936, when Tungsten Metals Corp. was organized to acquire the mines. Production ceased in May 1945, and the mines were idle until leased in 1947. Development by the Bureau of Mines during 1940 and 1941 consisted of surface trenching, sampling, and diamond drilling 37 holes for a total of 6,959 feet. Subsequent drilling of eight holes, totaling 3,067 feet, in 1943 disclosed additional reserves. This report sets forth in considerable detail the exploration work completed by the Bureau and briefly describes the mining and milling methods employed. Diamond-drill halo logs and sample analyses are shown graphically in the illustrations that accompany the report.

Jan 1, 1950

By C. A. Herbert

The old fatalistic idea that industrial accidents were a necessary part of industry and that little, if anything, could be done about them has been succeeded by realization that a majority of the hazards causing these accidents were man-made and that if they could be recognized most of them could be eliminated and the accidents prevented. Recognition of these facts has brought about substantial reduction of accidents in many coal dines, as well as in other industries. Knowledge of the hazards and their elimination has been obtained largely through a study of individual accidents and the causes which led up to them. With this thought in mind tae available data on coal-mine explosions in Illinois were studied.

Jan 1, 1934

By E. J. Gleim

"When permissible equipment is first placed in a gassy mine, those in charge may not realize the amount of attention and care they must give it if they intend to secure its full value as safety equipment. If permissible machines are installed as a safety measure, then they must receive regular, intelligent inspection and upkeep to forestall the development of unsafe features.Certain fundamentals have been followed in the design of this type of equipment in order to minimize the possibility of its igniting gas and dust. Hence, some knowledge of these fundamentals is essential to the inspector or official charged with the duty of ascertaining the condition of permissible machines with respect to safety. Familiarity with the constructional details of a machine is of first importance in making a thorough inspection of it. A knowledge of Schedule 2C3 which gives the requirements for practically all types of motor operated equipment receiving the United States Bureau of Mines' approval is also a requisite.There are certain special features in the construction followed by different manufacturers that can not be made clear for the purposes of inspection except by a lengthy description which would be inappropriate in this paper. There are, however, some general points that are applicable to the inspection of any machine employing trailing cable for connection to the power supply, also some that apply to any permissible storage-battery locomotive.The following list, based on the writer's experience in making field inspections, gives these general points in the form of questions which may he used as a guide by the inspector. A brief explanation is given after each question so that the reason for checking up on each point will be understood.1. Is a U. S. Bureau of Mines' approval plate attached to the machine? (Such a plate is necessary in order to establish identification as a permissible machine.)2. Is approval plate clean?(The plate should be clean so that the precautions enumerated on it are readable.)3. Is trailing cable protected by a fuse or other automatic circuit-interrupting device?(Trailing cable must have a fused trolley tap or other suitable means for short-circuit protection in case the cable is run over or splices fail. Proper fusing will minimize the possibility of fire in the cable reel.)4. If a trolley tap is used, does it contain a fuse of the proper capacity? (A piece of trolley wire or, too large a fuse may entirely defeat the purpose of fusing.)5. If a fused trolley tap is not used, how is connection made to the power supply? (The end of the trailing cable must be fitted with an insulated arrangement to minimize shock hazard when connecting the cable to the power supply.)6. Are the main fuses (or overload relays) of the correct size (or setting) for protection of the machine against overload?(Too large a fuse or too high a setting of the overload relay will permit damage to the machine by abuse through sustained overloads.)7. If the machine has a headlight, does the headlight circuit have overload and short-circuit protection?(The wiring of the headlight circuit on a machine is usually of a smaller size than that for the main circuits and therefore requires fuse protection proportionate to the size of wire.) Note: This same question may be asked relative to coal drills sometimes mounted on a machine."

Apr 1, 1932

By Charles Prasky

The objective of this investigation by the Bureau of Mines was to determine the response to sulfatization of diverse low-grade manganiferous materials in the iron formation of the Cuyuna district. In line with this objective a bench-scale sulfatizing procedure was developed that was less expensive and more rapid than pilot-plant methods. Samples from the central and south- western parts of the North range were tested. Results of evaluating a total of 46 pelletized samples, originating in areas with an estimated potential resource of 94 million long tons with a manganese content of 7 percent, indicates that approximately 87 percent of the manganese may be recovered as a synthetic manganese ore. This is equivalent to more than 12 million long tons of a metallurgical-grade ore, containing 46 percent manganese. It is anticipated that a premium product, containing over 50 percent manganese, may be obtained by sulfatizing procedures. This report is part of a continuing investigation5 6 of Cuyuna iron range manganese deposits in Crow Wing County, Minn. Lewis and coworkers describe the manganiferous iron formation in the bedrock of the Cuyuna district and include a description of a high-temperature differential sulfatizing process for recovering a ferrograde manganese product. The low-grade manganiferous

Jan 1, 1961

By G. L. Oldright

The data presented in this paper were collected et the smelter of the Consolidated Mining A Smelting Co. of Canada, Limited, Trail (Tadanac), British Columbia, through the courtesy of S. G. Blaylock, vice president and general manager; James Buchanan, smelter superintendent, George Murray, assistant smelter superintendent; and the staff members listed in Paper XI, Report of Investigations 3243. INTRODUCTION This paper is the twelfth of a series on smelting in the lead blast furnace and the fifth4 dealing with blast-furnace gases.

Jan 1, 1934

By Robert E. Barieau

The following zero pressure thermodynamic properties of nitrogen gas are tabulated: [C°p, H° -o, S°], These properties are tabulated in units of joules, gram mole, degrees Kelvin and in calories, gram-mole, degrees Kelvin for every degree Kelvin from 50° to 550°. The same functions are also tabulated in units of British thermal units pound-mole, degrees Rankine for every degree Rankine from 100° to 1,000°.

Jan 1, 1967

By B. M. Stewart

Researchers at the U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted a long-term groundwater monitoring and site characterization program at an abandoned 10-ha, acid-producing, copper-gold tailings impoundment in north-central Washington State. The purpose was to investigate contaminant release and transport, and attenuation mechanisms in the tailings, sediments below the tailings, and gravels downgradient of the impoundment. This report summarizes the monitoring results and physical properties of the tailings, the sediments below the tailings, and the groundwater system associated with the tailings. Water samples from the vadose and saturated zones of the impoundment were analyzed for 15 constituents. Concentrations of the same constituents were determined in water samples up to 3 m beneath the impoundment and in the shallow colluvium and deep bedrock at 76, 335, and 550 m downgradient and 168 m upgradient. Constituent concentrations within the tailings are quite variable and are influenced by pH, depth of oxidation, grain-size differential (surface area), hydraulic gradient, groundwater mixing, and the presence of hardpan layers, carbonaceous material, and organic matter. Most of the metal constituents decreased to background or near-background concentrations in the farthest downgradient well.

Jan 1, 2010

By GLADYS G. HEFFNER, William H. Waggaman, Edwin A. Gee

Thallium is one of the rare and relatively neglected elements that has recently assumed conspicuous importance. This element is widely distributed in nature but occurs in such minute quantities in most rocks and minerals that its recovery at present is only commercially feasible as a byproduct of other industries. World War II, with its unprecedented demand for products having special or unusual properties, led to a study of a number of the rarer elements that previously had been given comparatively little attention for one or more of the following reasons: 1. 2. Limited knowledge of properties. Small quantitios present in available raw materials. 3. High cost of concentration and recovery. Some of those rare elements, either alone or in the form of compounds, have already proved of such value for certain military and industrial purposes that their extraction from ores and waste products, oven at high cost, is fully justified. On the othor hand, further investigation of their character- istics, discovery of more adequato sources, and improvement in methods of con- centration and recovery would greatly broaden their field of usefulness and establish new and expanded industries. The current market for some of these elements exceeds the available supply. One of the functions of the Bureau of Mines is to study the properties of such elements in greater detail, locate the most promising raw materials from which they can be derived, and work out methods of extraction that will render the recovery of such elements more economical. The purpose of a serios of information circulars on the raror elements is to present in condensed form the facts and data so far available. This information may serve as a basis in planning more complete investigations loading to a full utilization of such elements.

Mar 1, 1950

By R. V. Higgins

As part of a study of application of the Buckley-Leverett method to an analysis of oil-reservoir performance covering a wide range of relative permeabilities and oil saturations, a method has been devised for quickly deter-mining average water saturation at breakthrough from relative permeability data. The base for the relative permeability used in the report is either the permeability to air or the effective permeability to oil at the irreducible water saturation. The permeability to air also was used because of the large backlog of air permeabilities available to reservoir engineers. The basic data were calculated by an electronic computer and are presented in a single graph from which the point of breakthrough may be obtained. In this study the water saturation at the beginning of the depletion is the connate or interstitial or irreducible water saturation. These water saturations are considered to be synonymous and to have a practical value.

Jan 1, 1960

By H. B. Hill

The discovery of the Oklahoma City field and its .rapid development into one of the major oil-producing districts is an outstanding epoch in the history of the petroleum industry not only of .Oklahoma but also of the United States. The relatively great depth to which the wells were drilled and the large initial production of high-gravity oil are of special significance. The field has boon under proration almost from the time that its development began, and many new production problems have developed out of the changed conditions of operation. The discovery well was first tested in December 1928 at a depth of 6,402 feet, with an initial production of 4,847 barrels of 38.5° A.P.I. gravity and several months later was completed at a depth of 6,624 feet. The large initial production, the high pressure, and the large gas volume in the different horizons of the discovery well suggested the potential possibilities of gas and oil, production in formations of Pennsylvanian and pre-Pennsylvanian age.

Jan 1, 1933