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By R. G. Ward, P. L. Sachdev

Using an improved maximum bubble pressure technique, the densities of iron silicates at 1400°C have been measured under nitrogen. At the wiistite composition the density has been measured by bubble-blowing experments with both argon and nitrogen and calculated from the measured volume of a known mass of melt under nitrogen. The densities under nitrogen are significantly different from those measured under argon for melts containing less than 28 wt pct SiO2. THE constitution of liquid slags is not well understood, largely because no single property or parameter can be measured which gives conclusive evi- dence of the types and packing of the ions present. Of the many property measurements which can provide information leading to a picture of the constitution of slags, density gives the most direct evidence and has been studied extensively. The work reported here is part of a program of study of densities in multicomponent melts in which the iron oxide-silica system is the solvent. These melts are important as they are fundamental to basic steelmaking, and they allow the study of basic silicate compositions which have hitherto been largely neglected. As considerable disparity exists

Jan 1, 1965

By T. A. Read, S. W. Kitchen, H. I. Fusfeld

At the present time most artillery cartridge cases are used only a single time. Since the process of reshaping a fired cartridge case so that it may be used again is much simpler and cheaper than the original manufacture of the case, it is clear that important savings could be effected if such re-formed cases were used in place of new cases. Extensive use of reconditioned cases has been hindered in the past, however, by the deterioration of the brass which may occur in the period of time between the first firing and the reconditioning of the cartridge cases. This deterioration sometimes results in a dangerously high incidence of firing splits in groups of reconditioned cartridge cases. It appears that the mechanism of the deterioration is the season cracking of the brass, for season cracks, of varying degrees of severity, may frequently be found in the cartridge cases after their return from the field. There are, of course, severe practical limitations to the extent to which fired cartridge cases can be protected from corrosion under battle conditions, particularly since the powder residue in the case is itself corrosive. The present paper describes a rapid method of testing the sidewalls of artillery cartridge cases for the presence of season cracks. This method has been developed specifically for use in connection with the reconditioning of fired cases, and makes it possible to carry out 100 per cent inspection. This new method of inspecting cartridge

Jan 1, 1945

By Edgar C. Bain

Of the important phenomenon of the hardening of steel, Professor Sauveurl says: It would seem as if the methods used to date for the elucidation of this complex problem have yielded all they are capable of yielding and that further straining of these methods will only serve to confuse the issue, the point having been reached when this juggling, no matter how skilfully done, with allotropy, solid solutions, and strains is causing weariness without advancing the solution of the problem. The tendency of late has been to abandon the safer road of experimental facts and to enter the maze of excessive speculations, in which there is great danger of some becoming hopelessly lost. The conclusion seems warranted that new avenues of approach must be found if we are to obtain a correct answer to this apparent enigma. With some degree of fitness we may say this of other problems. It seems likely that one of the new avenues of approach to many metallo-graphic problems is the study of crystal structure, or more accurately, the atomic arrangement, by means of the x-ray spectrometer. The crystal structure of some materials has been carefully worked out by the mineralogist, but his methods are, in general, unsuited to commercial metals and a method that yields even better information is at hand as the result of work on the diffraction of x-rays by Laue and the Braggs2 and later by HullI3 St. John, and others. It should be understood that the contour of free crystals, which is the subject of measurements by the crystallographer, is the result of the atomic structure and, in general, bears a simple and obvious relation to it. The use of the x-ray spectrometer4 has been described frequently, so the procedure will not be given here.

Jan 1, 1923

By John C. F. Randolph

This establishment being now in full working order, it has seemed of considerable professional interest to collect together, in a concise form, the various points as to its plan, method of dressing, and equipment. The data contained in this paper have been largely drawn from the able paper of E. Kutscher, constrnoting engineer of the works, contained in the Zeitschrift fur Berg-HÜtten-und Salinenwesen im Preussischen Staate, 1873, supplemented by some personal memoranda made while the works were under construction and by memoranda on the works appearing in various German technical papers from their completion up to date. This is probably the largest dressing works in the world devoted to the beneficiation of argentiferous lead ores, and it is doubtful if any establishment for the concentration of mineral of any description can compare with it in size. As showing the final practice adopted in an old and very conservative mining region, in which the concentration of ores has been a matter of constant practice and experiment for a very long period, these works are of peculiar interest. The fact that the Clausthal ores strongly resemble a very large and abundant class of ores found in the United States has always attracted the attention of American mining engineers and mine owners to the methods employed in dressing and smelting them. The study of their methods of concentration of ores has, however, always been full of difficulty,

Jan 1, 1879

By D. Swan

Industrial research may be defined as a critical and exhaustive investigation to create new and better ways of doing things. The results of industrial research are new and improved products, processes, and techniques. This broad definition, of course, covers investigation of all subjects by either individuals or groups of people, and this chapter aims to examine the purpose (what research tries to do), and methods (or how research is done) as applied in the mineral industries. Concepts and History The idea or concept of organized research probably originated in the universities of Europe. There, groups of scholars banded together for discussion and application of their particular specialty to a common problem. Publication of the conclusions drawn from such investigations gave scholars in other areas the opportunity to review and criticize the work of their colleagues, and one of the hallmarks of scientific research work is the publication and criticism of the results of the investigation. It was not until the late nineteenth century that the concept of organized research for the profit of industry was recognized. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a large number of industrial enterprises sponsored organizations to study the application of the physical sciences with the aim of making discoveries that would result in profit to the sponsoring organization. The tangible benefits accruing from these activities were so great that they, in turn, fostered several other methods for the support of organized research activities. For the large problems involving public interest, United States Government scientific research laboratories were set up. As the demand of smaller enterprises for research activities increased, research institutes and consulting laboratories were organized. In Europe the idea of common industry sponsorship of research centers grew and many large research organizations there were sponsored by associations of manufacturers. Finally, in the United States

Jan 1, 1964

By P. W. Neurath

IN recent years the domain theory of ferromag-netism has been put on a sound experimental and theoretical basis. But its application to one of the most widely used high quality magnetic materials, the cold-rolled grain-oriented 3 pct Si-Fe used in transformer cores, has been rather difficult because of the complexity of the domain structure of the poly crystalline sheet material. This paper presents some experimental data for this material, showing the relation between plastic and elastic stresses, 60-cycle watt losses, and the domain structure as observed visually. Only a very tentative qualitative explanation of the effects will be attempted. Some initial results were reported earlier.'

Jan 1, 1957

By Edgar C. Bain

Of the important phenomenon of the hardening of steel, Professor Sauveurl says: It would seem as if the methods used to date for the elucidation of this complex problem have yielded all they are capable of yielding and that further straining of these methods will only serve to confuse the issue, the point having been reached when this juggling, no matter how skilfully done, with allotropy, solid solutions, and strains is causing weariness without advancing the solution of the problem. The tendency of late has been to abandon the safer road of experimental facts and to enter the maze of excessive speculations, in which there is great danger of some becoming hopelessly lost. The conclusion seems warranted that new avenues of approach must be found if we are to obtain a correct answer to this apparent enigma. With some degree of fitness we may say this of other problems. It seems likely that one of the new avenues of approach to many metallo-graphic problems is the study of crystal structure, or more accurately, the atomic arrangement, by means of the x-ray spectrometer. The crystal structure of some materials has been carefully worked out by the mineralogist, but his methods are, in general, unsuited to commercial metals and a method that yields even better information is at hand as the result of work on the diffraction of x-rays by Laue and the Braggs2 and later by HullI3 St. John, and others. It should be understood that the contour of free crystals, which is the subject of measurements by the crystallographer, is the result of the atomic structure and, in general, bears a simple and obvious relation to it. The use of the x-ray spectrometer4 has been described frequently, so the procedure will not be given here.

Jan 1, 1923

By E. I. Organick, B. H. Golding

A simple correlation is presented for the prediction of saturation pressures in condensate-gas and volatile-oil mixtures. Saturation pressure is related directly to the composition of the mixture with the aid of two generalized composition characteristics, B, the molal average boiling point, and W, the modified weight average equivalent molecular weight. The need for hydrocarbon equilibrium constants is entirely eliminated. Only the values of the two conlposition parameters need be obtained, and these are calculated in a simple and reproducible manner from the stream analysis of the mixture and the ASTM distillation for the heavy ends. The correlation is given .in the form of a set of 14 working charts in which saturation pressures, either retrograde dew points or bubble points, are plotted cs temperature, forming partial phase envelopes for mixtures having discrete values of the composition parameters, B and Wul. A locus of critical states on each chart intersects the partial phase envelopes, distinguishing retrograde dew point pressures from bubble pressures. A comparison Between experimental and predicted saturation pressures reveals that: the probable error of the predicted values, when considering the data as a whole (214 experimental points), is five per cent; for high gasjoil ratio condensate fluids (approximately 40.000 or more cu ft/bbl) the probable error is about 8 per cent. In either case, however, the probable error is comparable with the overall uncertainty of the data from which the correlation is derived. INTRODUCTION There is a present need for a simplified, yet reasonably accurate method for predicting upper phase boundaries of reservoir fluids. In the case of high gas/oil ratio fluids, namely the so-called highly volatile oils and the condensate gases, no simple method, accurate within 5 to 10 per cent, is now available by which bubble point and retrograde dew point pressures may be predicted. In order to calculate the upper phase boundary of a volatile reservoir fluid, using correlations now available, it is necessary to find and employ the proper K-values (equilibrium volatility ratios of the hydrocarbons in that fluid). This process of finding the Proper K-values usually involves a double trial and error computation. Since the K-values are in themselves dependent upon the composition of the fluid, their use in the calculation of a saturation pressure actually represents an unnecessary complication. The correlation described in this paper relates saturation pressure directly to the stream composition, entirely eliminating the need for K-values. The only data required to calculate the Stream composition are obtained from the customary low temperature fractional analyses of separator gas and liquidt and from the ASTM distillation of the c,+ fraction of the separator liquid. A considerable simplification in the procedure for predicting saturation pressures is thereby effected without significant loss in accuracy. BASIS FOR A CORRELATION Empirical relationships between the saturation pressure and the composition of the fluid in question have already been partially explored by one of the authors.V n particular, a relationship between the critical pressure for a hydrocarbon mixture and its composition was developed. The critical pressure is in reality a saturation pressure, as it repregents a limiting case either of a dew point or of a buhhle point pressure for any given mixture. It was found that the critical pressure may be correlated as a function of two generalized composition characteristics or variables. One characteristic expressed a molal average prop-erty, the other a weight average property of the mixture. Specifically, the molal average boiling point (MABP, or B as it

Jan 1, 1952

By Ernest Kirkendall

The amount of research done in the last fen years on the subject of diffusion in solid metals is significant of the importance of this problem. To review the literature dealing with diffusion is unnecessary here. Deschl in 1912 reviewed the work that had been done on diffusion in solids and gave a bibliography of the literature published before that time. Mehl's paper in 19362 is an excellent review of diffusion in metals and contains a large bibliography. Of importance also for it? review and bibliography is an article by 14. I. Krynitsky.~ While considerable material lias appeared in the literature on diffusion in brass, the amount of information is not great compared to that pertaining to some of the other alloys. Most of the information published is of a qualitative nature; that which is quantitative varies considerably. Thus the quantitative determination of the rates of diffusion of copper and zinc in alpha brass by a new method appeared worth while. In the present investigation the rate of diffusion of zinc in approximately the same composition alpha brass has been determined :it three temperatures. Procedure The method used consisted of plating copper on a beta brass, heating it, to allow diffusion to take place, and measuring the concentration of copper by determining the lattice constant of the alloy. This method is unique in that it uses a beta brass of such a composition that at the tem perature at which diffusion takes place the beta brass is saturated wit11 copper. Thus, while the beta brass supplies thc zinc, no diffusion takes

Jan 1, 1939

By J. M. Neilson

The occurrence of iron ore deposits in the State of Western Australia has been known at least since the 1930's,3 but the true significance of the deposits has only come to light within the past four years. Although they are widely distributed throughout the State, it is now known that more than 90% of the available iron ore reserves are located in the "Hamersley Iron Province". Western Australia may well contain the world's largest known reserves of iron ore. Recent reports place this reserve at 15 billion tons and an even higher figure may appear in the future. LOCATION, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATIONS It is difficult to comprehend the immense size of Western Australia (Fig. 1). The State occupies almost one million sq miles and it is more than 2000 miles from north to south. More specifically, it stretches from the 14th to the 35th parallel of latitude south. The Ophthalmia Region in the Hamersley Iron Province is barely halfway up the long dimension of the State. Nevertheless, the region is 800 miles north of Perth, a distance comparable to that from New York to Chicago or to that from Chicago to New Orleans. The Hamersley Iron Province (so named in 1963 to distinguish it from the Pilbara mineral district adjacent to it on the north) covers an area of approximately 30,000 sq miles in the northwestern part of the State. It extends in a roughly oval form from the Indian Ocean to the Gibson Desert of the interior, a distance of about 300 miles. With the exception of the small coastal towns of Onslow, Roebourne and Port Hedland and a few other communities such as the asbestos-mining town of Wittenoom, the region is very sparsely populated. Sheep and cattle stations are scattered thfough the region and these and the main towns are connected by truck tracks and a few main highways. Voice communication is almost entirely by the short-wave radio net operated by the Royal Flying Doctor

Jan 1, 1965

By Ernest Kirkendall

The amount of research done in the last fen years on the subject of diffusion in solid metals is significant of the importance of this problem. To review the literature dealing with diffusion is unnecessary here. Deschl in 1912 reviewed the work that had been done on diffusion in solids and gave a bibliography of the literature published before that time. Mehl's paper in 19362 is an excellent review of diffusion in metals and contains a large bibliography. Of importance also for it? review and bibliography is an article by 14. I. Krynitsky.~ While considerable material lias appeared in the literature on diffusion in brass, the amount of information is not great compared to that pertaining to some of the other alloys. Most of the information published is of a qualitative nature; that which is quantitative varies considerably. Thus the quantitative determination of the rates of diffusion of copper and zinc in alpha brass by a new method appeared worth while. In the present investigation the rate of diffusion of zinc in approximately the same composition alpha brass has been determined :it three temperatures. Procedure The method used consisted of plating copper on a beta brass, heating it, to allow diffusion to take place, and measuring the concentration of copper by determining the lattice constant of the alloy. This method is unique in that it uses a beta brass of such a composition that at the tem perature at which diffusion takes place the beta brass is saturated wit11 copper. Thus, while the beta brass supplies thc zinc, no diffusion takes

Jan 1, 1939

By Noel H. Stearn

OF the many instruments devised for the measurement of magnetic anomalies, the ordinary dip needle, by virtue of its superior simplicity of construction, facility of manipulation, and definiteness of interpretation, seems to merit serious attention as the instrument most readily applicable to the detection of magnetic anomalies of the higher order of magnitude. In spite of the fact that it has been used for many years for the discovery of iron ore in Europe and in the Lake Superior region of America, its capabilities as a geological instrument have not yet been thoroughly plumbed. The Wisconsin Geological Survey, under Dr. W. 0. Hotchkiss, E. F. Bean, and H. R. Aldrich, has been most thorough in developing the technique of the instrument, and the results it has obtained have aroused a general interest in a more widespread use of geomagnetics as an exploration method and the dip needle as a geological instrument. The simplicity of the instrument is an especial advantage, as it can be used by anyone, regardless of his technical training; but to insure useful results not only is a knowledge of the background of geomagnetics necessary but also an understanding of the principles of the instrument itself. Principles of the Dip Needle The major feature of the dip needle is an elongated magnet suspended with fixed bearings in such a way that it can move in a single plane. If the point of suspension were exactly at the center of gravity of the magnet, the instrument would be identical with the "dip circle" or "dipping needle" of terrestrial magneticists, and as such could be used to determine variations in the inclination of the earth's magnetic field when observed in the plane of the magnetic meridian. The dip needle, however, differs from the "dip circle" or "dipping needle" in having an adjustable counterweight affixed to one end of the magnet. This counterweight serves to balance the magnet at an angle to the inclination of the earth's field when the instrument is oriented in the plane of magnetic

Jan 1, 1929

By Emile Rector Abadie

The picturesque little mining town of Grass Valley, nestled in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at an altitude of 2500 feet, has been for 43 years the scene of uninterrupted activity and prosperity, as the center of a mining district which was intimately associated with the pioneer days of California, and the discovery of gold by James W. Marshall, in El Dorado county, in January, 1848. Although placer-mining was inaugurated in Nevada county as early as 1848, the first quartz ledge was not located until the summer of 1850. Discoveries made on Gold Hill and Massachusetts Hill increased the excitement in quartz-mining, and hastened the erection (during the same year) of the first mill operated in the State. At the close of 1864, the district had produced $23,000,000 in gold, and all the well-known properties of to-day had been discovered and worked. The Eureka-Idaho, the North Star, and the Empire mines were in active operation ; and to-day we still find them equipped with large crushing-plants, operating 80 per cent. of all the stamps in the immediate Grass Valley district. Of the mines just named, the North Star possesses the most recently constructed mill, a description of which, the writer believes, may prove of interest to members of the Institute engaged in the milling of goldores. During the year 1386, operations at the North Star mine (the property of the North Star Mining Company) had reached such a stage of development that the necessity of a crushing-plant at the mine became imperative, and early in October the erection of a 30stamp mill was in progress. The building designed to contain 40 stamps was speedily erected ; and within sixty days the large structure was under cover. Plate A represents the appearance of the mill 40 days after work was commenced. Late in February, 1887, the mill was in readiness, and, upon the

Jan 1, 1895

By Blamey Stevens

In this paper, which is a logical extension of my paper, The Laws of Intrusion,1 the various pressures of emanation and their mechanical causes and effects on the large scale of nature are determined, and a classification of emanations is deduced therefrom. • The Subterranean. Sea. The subterranean sea is here defined as the intercommnnicating water contained in the trains of pores and fissures of the rocks down to great depths. Whether the actual amount of water constituting this subterranean sea be large or small, does not enter into the present argument, since the static pressure of this water at any particular depth is not a function of the quantity : it involves only the depth and the density of the water. Densities. The total pressure at depths down to 10 or 15 miles is made up of the rock-stresses investigated in my previous papers, and the pressure of the subterranean sea. The latter component must evidently be equal to the weight of a solid column of the overlying water of unit sectional area. As mater expands with heat, it should really be necessary to sum the density at every level. A knowledge of the densities of mater under a variety of conditions is therefore needed, but does not seem ever to have been ascertained for such combined pressures and temperatures as we have to consider. The specific gravity of water at 28' C. for various pressures up to 400 atmospheres, has been determined by Barus, 2 who

Jan 1, 1913

By John B. Hastings

The occurrellce of such a large amount of gold in the Hart-eel granite, even though the surmised existence of similar areas is not new, brings freshly to mind the pegmatite type of mag-matic differentiation lately brought again to attention by occurrences at Silver Peak, Nev., described by Spurr; and in Alaska, described by both Spurr and Brooks. In both localities granitic rocks or dikes are thought to pass into metalliferous quartz-veins. An interesting association in this connection is the occurrence of diamonds in residual pegmatitic clay of Sail Juao de Chapado, Brazil, described by Derby :' (P. 142) "Bodies of pegmatite are quite common in the older rocks of Brazil, both in the diamond regions and elsewhere, occurring not only in the gneiss and granite, but in the schistose series as well. Those that have been examined are dike-like in their mode of occurrence and granitic in composition.'' (P. 143) '" The question of the eruptive or secretionary origin of pegmatites has long been a subject of discussion among geologists.... The recent studies .. seen] to have clearly established that most if not all of them are essentially eruptive masses, though possibly modified in some way by aqueous agencies. Even before becoming acquainted with the literature of the subject this view had seemed to me to be the only acceptable one as regards the typical pegmatites of Brazil." What is pegmatite ? J. F. Kemp says :2 "... veins or dikes—it is an open question which is the more correct term— are met formed of very coarsely crystalline aggregates of the same minerals that constitute granite. These are called pegmatite and in them is the home of graphic granite, the curious intergrowth of quartz and feldspar, such that a cross fracture of the blades of quartz suggests cuneiform characters.... In regard to the larger veins or dikes it seems improbable that true igneous fusion could have afforded such coarsely crystalline aggregates, and so we are forced to assume such abundance of steam and other vapors, i.e, mineralizers, as to almost, if not quite, imply solution."

Jan 1, 1909

By C. H. P. Lupis, R. Hocine, G. Bernard

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the stability of a multicomponent phase with respect to infinitesinzal fluctuations are derived and transformed to be written in terms of activity coeffcients and mole fractions rather than in terms of the customary second deritlatives of the free energy. NECESSARY conditions for the stability of a multi-component system were derived by Gibbs as early as 1876.' However, as the usefulness of these conditions is greatly enhanced by the simplicity of their translation in terms of functions of common usage, the present contribution establishes these conditions in terms of activities or activity coefficients-and mole fractions. It was shown in another article2 that not only may these conditions be used for the prediction of the appearance of new phases, but they may also provide a check on the orders of magnitude of the interaction coefficients involved. "Spinodal" decomposition is said to occur when, at constant temperature and pressure, the system is unstable with respect to infinitesimal fluctuations in composition. As a result, the "phases" which appear may be attained through continuous changes in the system rather than discontinuous ones, and, consequently, the free energy of these phases may be described by a unique continuous free-energy function. For a binary system, the familiar curve of Fig. 1 illustrates the case we wish to extend to a multicom-ponent system. The conditions to be written pertain to the decomposition of a system of n moles into moles of phase moles of phase v, ...hen moles of phase 9, where the phases a, ...v, ...9 are—at least initially-arbitrarily close in composition to that of the original phase. Each A, is positive and since the total number of moles n in the system remains constant: Each phase v contains hv(nl +dnY) moles of component (I), ...xV(ni +dny) of component + dnk) moles of component (m). The total number of moles ni in the system remaining also constant, it is clear that:

Jan 1, 1968

By C. S. Barrett, P. Coheur

ANNEALING twins are common in the microstructure of copper that has been rolled and recrystallized. In such samples it follows that a twin relationship should exist between components of the recrystallization texture,1 and several examples of this have been reported. For example, twin relationships have been found in recrystallized electrolytic copper sheet, as indicated in Fig. I, from a paper by Coheur and Lejeune.2 In this pole figure the cube texture (100) [001] is indicated by the hollow squares in the lower half of the figure (the pole figure for 200 reflections) and in the upper, (111), part of the figure. The texture contains, in addition to this orientation, the first-order twins of it, shown in the figure by the filled triangles. This orientation relation has been suggested by others also, under certain annealing conditions,3,4 although pole figures have not been published to confirm it. Some orientations in recrystallized sheets are identical with their twins, because of the symmetry elements of the texture this is true, for example, with the (113) [211] texture so commonly reported for brass-hence it appears impossible in such samples to decide whether the twin relationships result from twinning or merely from the symmetry of the deformation process. The present investigation of a commercial copper strip seems to yield an example in which annealing twins account unambiguously for the principal orientations present. It proves to be a case, also, for which the recrystallization texture cannot be viewed as derived from the deformation texture by a first or second-order twinning mechanism . MATERIALS AND METHODS The samples investigated were of secondary copper (melted in Belgium) to which 0.19 per cent iron had been added to raise the recrystallization temperature. How much the orientation characteristics of this metal can be ascribed to the iron content and how much to other impurities or to melting and pouring practice has not been investigated.* The rolling was done in one direction only, on a mill with rolls of about 20-cm diameter. A strip 10 cm wide was reduced from 5 mm thickness to 0.05 mm by several cold passes at commercial speeds. The samples cut from this 99 per cent reduced strip were X-rayed throughout their entire thickness. A pole figure made soon after rolling and annealing was identical, within experimental error, with one that was made when a two-year interval occurred between rolling and annealing. X-ray patterns were made on a cameral that traversed

Jan 1, 1946

By J. H. Frye, S. G. Holder, E. E. Stansbury

Internal friction studies on annealed and cold-worked pure silver and alloys of silver with 4.5 atomic pct each of Cd, Sn, and Sb are reported. Small amounts of cold work, introduced by stretching pure silver, decrease the internal friction; large amounts of cold work, by wire drawing, cause this decreased internal friction to rise. Results of severol anneoling histories on the room-temperature in-ternal friction indicate a rather complex recovery and recrystallization behavior. A rather system-atic alloy effect is observed for the elements of Period V-B in silver in both the annealed and cold-worked states. DURING recent years internal friction measurements at very small stress levels have been interpreted in terms of structural models and mechanisms occurring within the metal or alloy.These measurements have been made over wide ranges of frequency of vibration and of temperature. While the effects of impurities, alloying, and plastic deformation have been studied by numerous investigators, no investigations of the effect of a series of solutes related by their position in the Periodic Table on a given solvent seem to have been reported. The present paper reports internal friction measurements on silver and on certain silver-base solid solutions to determine the values of room-temperature internal friction associated with varying amounts of plastic deformation and after different annealing

Jan 1, 1957

By H. W. Graham

AS these annual occasions in honor of Henry Marion Howe continue through the years, there is progressively less likelihood that the lecturer will have had personal knowledge of Dr. Howe. The present speaker is one of those who unfortunately had no opportunity to come under the inspiring presence of this great metallurgist. A review of Howe's work shows it to cover a comprehensive range of interests and to evidence an impressive richness of detail. Not only was Howe at home in the laboratory, but he was familiar with the processes of iron and steel making and had a real understanding of them writings include much that is descriptive of processes with a wealth of material that is becoming of increasing historical value. He recorded his studies of the theoretical aspects of processes and published at least two process classifications, one in 1890 that was lengthy and somewhat theoretical, and a second in 1906 that was more of a practical listing. Wide as Howe's field of interest was, it is significant of the circumstances of his time that he gave little consideration to raw materials or to their effect on iron and steel making processes. In 1933, Waterhouse, Howe lecturer for that year, presented a descriptive summary of the major steelmaking processes, and in 1946 Joseph discussed the blast furnace process. Otherwise Howe lectures have not dealt with processes as major subjects. In today's lecture, with no effort to describe the mechanical arrangements of iron and steel making facilities, it is proposed to examine the essential technological elements of the processes, to explore the inter-relation of these elements, and particularly to seek recognition and understanding of those factors which determine why certain processes are or are not used. The discussion of this lecture will deal with the major well-known large tonnage processes, with only such attention to processes of minor tonnage and special character as may be warranted for explanation by contrast. Subject to the errors of generalization and the short- comings of condensation involved in presentation limited to a single hour, it is proposed to examine broadly but intensively those operations which convert raw materials into steel. It is an innovation for a Howe lecturer to discuss the raw materials of the iron and steel industry, but the changing circumstances of passing years intensify the influence of raw materials on processes and require the metallurgist to be alert for the process adjustments that may become advisable or mandatory. For a half century the metallurgical processing of iron and steel has followed a surprisingly straight path, but this does not necessarily mean that there are no curves in the road ahead. Ages ago primitive man came to know iron in its metallic form, not only by the

Jan 1, 1947

The Mississippi river was discovered by French explorers that came southwestward, by way of the Great Lakes, from eastern Canada. Vignan, Joliet, De Champlain, and others of the French pioneers in the first half of the seventeenth century, dreamed of a short cut to China by means of the great waterways they explored. In a geographical book published in London in 1726 by Daniel Coxe an account is given of "a new and curious discovery and relation betwixt the river Meschachebe [Mississippi] and the South Sea, which separates America from China, by means of several large rivers and lakes". Louis Joliet, a fur-trader, and Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, reached the Mississippi and paddled their canoes on its broad waters on June 17, 1673.* They descended the river as far as the entry of the Arkansas tributary, and then returned overland to Canada, being deterred from going farther south by reason of Indian hostility. Several years later Robert de La Salle, a French trader, starting from Quebec, went westward to Lake Michigan and thence to the Illinois river, which he and his comrades descended in their canoes to the junction with the Mississippi, and then followed it to the sea. They reached the Gulf of Mexico on April 9, 1682. Thus the great central waterway of North America was made known. These French-Canadian voyageurs, or boatmen, traded with the Indians for furs in the Upper Mississippi valley, and when in need of bullets they noticed the outcrops of lead ore, from which, probably in the last decade of the seventeenth

Jan 1, 1932