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By AIME AIME

General Local Committee.-John Fritz, Chairman; A. B. de Saulles, Vice-Chairman.; R. M. Bird, Treasurer; Henry S. Drinker, Secretary; Robert H. Sayre, E. P. Wilbur, Charles M. Dodson, Abraham S. Schropp, E. M. McIlvain Archibald Johnston, A. B. Fichter, C. G. Convers, W. A. Wilbur, Garrett B. Linderman, Frederick Conlin, George Pettiuos, Albert Brodhead, Garrett L. Hoppes, M.B. Cutter, H. J. Seaman, C. A. Matcham, B. F. Fackenthal, Jr., A. L. J. Queneau, Geo. R. Elder, Eldridge Wilbur, William H. Chandler, Mansfield Merriman, Joseph F. Klein, William S. Franklin, William Esty, Joseph AN'. Richards, Howard Eckfeldt, John D. Irving. Transportation Committee.-H. J. Seaman, C. A. Matcham, B. F. Fackenthal, Jr., A. B. Fichter, A. L. J. Queneau, Henry S. Drinker. Hotel Committee. -Garrett B. Linderman, Charles M. Dodson, W. A. Wilbur, Garrett L. Hoppes, Albert Brodhead. Steering Committee.-William S. Franklin, William Esty, John D. Irving, R. M. Bird, the members of the Tau Beta Pi Society of Lehigh University. Committee on Meetings - William S. Drinker, Joseph W. Richards, Howard Eckfeldt. Entertainmment Committee.-W. A. Wilbur, E. M. McIlvain, Archibald Johnston, A. B. de Saulles, G. G. Convers,.A. L. J. Queneau, Garrett B. Linderman, Frederick Conlin, George Pettinos, Garrett L. Hoppes, Henry S. Drinker, William S. Franklin, Eldridge Wilbur, Robert M. Bird, Secretary. The opening session was held at 8.30 p.m., Wednesday, February 21, 1906, in Gymnasium Hall of Lehigh University, which had been tastefully decorated with flags and bunting. Dr. Henry S. Drinker, President of Lehigh University, and Secretary of the General Local Committee, called the meeting to order, and welcomed the Institute to the Bethlehems, where its first meeting, after its organization in May, 1871, at Wilkes-Barre, was held in August, 1871.*

May 1, 1906

By Charles A. Ashburner

THE appliances which have been proposed, and the modifications in the construction of boiler-furnaces which have been made for the prevention of smoke, and the utilization of what are ordinarily called the waste products of combustion, have been innumerable.

Jan 1, 1882

By Stirling Huntley, L. G. Huntley

THE controversy regarding the ,'probable future of the Mexican oil fields, and its relation to the oil industry of the United States, has led to the preparation of this paper. As has been predicted by several writers in recent papers, certain of the producing areas in the so-called "southern fields" in the Tampico Embayment have only a limited oil reserve. These areas are being pulled on by every pipe line in that region, and the length of time that they will continue to produce is a direct factor of the daily oil shipments of these companies. However, this is not the whole story, and in the following paragraphs an attempt will be made to show that the life of Mexican oil production will be a long one, and Mexican oil will continue to be a large factor n the market for an indefinite time after the areas mentioned above have been drained. The past and present producing fields will be discussed separately, in order-to establish a basis for comparison, the ,only method by which underground reserves 'can be estimated in these fields.

Jan 1, 1921

By A. W. Ashbrook

The process of solvent extraction.(or liquid-liquid extraction) is a separation technique involving mass transfer across a phase boundary, and as such is not limited to metal transfer from an aqueous to a non-aqueous phase, or, vice versa. We shall here, however, restrict ourselves to the application of the solvent extraction technique to metallurgical processing. Basically, the process of solvent extraction as applied to metals separation and purification requires only that a specific metal be transferred from, initially, an aqueous phase to a non-aqueous phase, followed by a reversal of this transfer. Such a process can be defined simply by the following equation: [M + E ME]

Jan 1, 1978

By Rossiter W. Raymond

I desire to call the attention of the Institute to an interesting experiment, which may turn out to be an indication of a valuable improvement in the manufacture of steel. As the members are aware, the addition of ordinary spiegeleisen, in the open hearth or Bessemer converter, to a bath of decarbonized iron, has a twofold object,—the recarbonization of the bath to a desired degree, and the remedy of the red shortness otherwise found to be inevitable in the final product. This red shortness is ascribed to the presence of oxide of iron in the molten metal; and it is supposed that the manganese of the spiegeleisen, uniting with the oxygen of such oxide, carries it into the slag. At the same time there is a small percentage of the manganese usually left in the cast steel, probably to the improvement of its quality. Whatever be the true explanation the effect of the manganese is acknowledged to be not only beneficial, but necessary. But the use of spiegeleisen containing high percentages of carbon limits the quantity that can be introduced, because the carbon must be limited if soft steel is desired. This inconvenience becomes so serious as to prevent the use of ordinary spiegeleisen in the manufacture of steel containing more than, say two-tenths per cent. of phosphorus; since the quality of the steel can be made tolerable only by reducing its contents of carbon in proportion as the

By Chas. A. Ashburnea

THE appliances which have been proposed, and the modifications in the construction of boiler-furnaces which have been made for the prevention of smoke, and the utilization of what are ordinarily called the waste products of combustion, have been innumerable.† †There is now open in London an exhibition "of apparatus of all kinds devised to prevent smoke."

Jan 1, 1882

By Anwar-ul Karim

In one of our recent papers, Cheng, Karim, Langdon, and Dom1 analyzed the creep mechanisms in a Fe-4 pct Si alloy. The experimental results of apparent ac-

Jan 1, 1970

By WILLIAM COUPER

THE completion of the excavation of the tunnels through Bergen Hill for the extension of the Pennsylvania Railroad into New York City, together with the fact that the excavation for the rest of the tunnel-line has been practically completed for some time past, arouses sufficient interest to justify a description of the engineering- and contracting-work, and the organization by which it has been accomplished. The finishing of the excavation is a long step towards the completion of the entire tunnel-project. It will be interesting to the members of the Institute, who last spring were taken through a great part of this work, to know that by the excavation now completed it is possible to walk by tunnel from a, point near Sunnyside yard, Long Island, east of the 34th Street ferry, to the central passenger station site in the City of New York, and thence by tunnel to the Hackensack meadows, and by an embankment constructed across these meadows to Newark, N. J. This New York tunnel extension is being constructed as a part of the Pennsylvania Railroad system by the Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal R. R. Co., a corporation of the States of New Jersey and New York. It extends from a point near Newark, N. J., to the Sunnyside yard, Long Island, as indicated on the accompanying plan.

Jan 7, 1908

By G. D. Gemmell

Effects of solid-sdutidn alloying with titanium, molybdenum, and tungsten at concentrations up to 10 pct on the strength of pure columbium at elevated temperatures (mainly 2000°F) have been investigated by means of creep-rupture, hot-tensile, and hot-hardness testing and recrystallization studies. ThIS paper presents some results from the initial part of a study of the effects of alloying on the high-temperature strength properties of columbium. The elevated-temperature strength characteristics of pure columbium were first studied. Binary alloys of columbium with titanium, molybdenum, and tungsten containing 1, 5, and 10 pct of the solute elements were chosen on the basis of their high melting points, their known solid solubility in columbium, and results of separate oxidation-resistance studies of columbium alloys. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE All the materials used were of highest purity. A typical analysis of the columbium is shown in Table I. Compositions of the alloys are also given in Table I. To evaluate the strength properties of pure co-lumbium and the alloys at elevated temperatures, creep-rupture, hot-tensile, and hot-hardness testing was done on recrystallized material. To prepare the pure metal and the alloys for these tests, 1- 1b buttons were made in a water-cooled copper crucible, inert atmosphere, tungsten arc furnace. Tapered ingots, 3 in. long, were made from these buttons by a skull-casting technique and these were machined to 1/2 in. diam, swaged to 50 pct reduction (pure columbium at room temperature, alloys at lowest temperature possible without cracking, generally in range 1100" to 1800°F) and heated in vacuum (lo-' mm Hg) for 16 hr at 2550°F for re-crystallization and homogenization. The resulting grain diameter was 0.1 to 0.3 mm. The 10 pct Mo alloy casting was not successfully swaged at temperatures up to 1800°F without cracking and was not included in the test program. Creep-rupture testing was done at constant load in vacuum on cylindrical specimens of 0.16 in. diam, using Instron capsules. The pressure at test temperatures was less than 10-1 mm Hg. Hardneas readings taken on the test specimen before and after testing were used as a check on possible gaseous contamination. Hot tensile tests in vacuum on cylindrical specimens of 0.125 in. diam were also made with Instron equipment at a strain rate of 0.067 min.-l. Hot-hardness measurements were taken with a unit constructed at the Du Pont Experimental Station. The test piece, supported on an alumina anvil, and the molybdenum indenter shaft with sapphire tip is heated in a platinum-wound furnace. The load applied to the pyramid indenter is measured by strain gages attached to a proving ring located outside the hot zone. In the measurements reported here the load was I kg. The tester operates in a vacuum of about 10"5 mm Hg and is capable of temperatures up to 1400°C.

Jan 1, 1960

By William G., Pariseau

There are important phenomena in rock and soil mechanics that cannot be explained in terms of theories of homogeneous, isotropic materials. Subsidence of strata about mine openings is an example. In-situ stress measurements in nonisotropic sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks is another. Patterns of joints, faults, fractures, and similar geologic features impart directional mechanical properties to rock masses that are locally isotropic or anisotropic. On the geologic scale, the non-homogeneity of composite rock masses may, in certain instances, be dealt with as homogeneous anisotropy. The mechanics of large rock masses can, therefore, be expected to involve considerations of anisotropy. The source of the anisotropy is not relevant. Once the scale of observation is selected and the material is defined accordingly, the analysis of stress and deformation proceeds without regard to the numerical values of the material constants. There are also important phenomena in rock and soil mechanics that cannot be explained in terms of linear elasticity, theory. For the mechanical description of anisotropic geologic materials capable of de- forming beyond the limit of purely elastic strains, a plasticity theory is required.

Jan 1, 1972

By Albert F. J. Bordeaux

Discussion of the paper of Albert F. J. Bordeaux (Bi-Monthly Bulletin, No. 23, September, 190S, pp. 629 to 640). A. H. BROMLY, Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, Mexico (communication to the Secretary*) :-The following criticism of what "is offered as a summary which may be found useful by mining engineers," is not dictated by any captious spirit, but in the interest of historical and scientific accuracy. The States of Queretaro and Oaxaca have produced sufficient silver to warrant more extended notice. Referring to Pachuca, State of Hidalgo, the somewhat loose and. inexact statement is made that "the ore-deposit is an andesite, intermixed with quartz-veins, rich from the surface." A better description would be,-the ore-deposits consist of quartz-veins in andesite. It is notable that many of the rich shoots worked in recent days did not come to surface. In consequence, Pachuca, is often quoted by the ill-informed as a camp in which values improve with depth, the truth being that the veins carry shoots, or clavos, some of which were exposed at surface and some not. The name of " electric plow," applied to the mechanical stirrer of recent use, is certainly not to be recommended. The stirrer, or agitator, consists essentially of a traversing gang-plow, operated by power through shafting, drums, and wire-rope. The fact that in certain plants the motive-power used is electricity does not make it an electric plow. Such a name suggests a machine of which the motor is an essential and integral part; which is not so in this case. A lathe in a factory driven by water-power is not called a hydraulic lathe. My experience agrees with Dr. Raymond's note as to azulaque, which in sortie districts is also applied to blue copper carbonate. The El Oro, Esperanza, and Mexico mines should be allocated to the State of Mexico; the Dos Estrellas being in Michoacan, as stated. The El Oro quartz certainly does not appeal to me

May 1, 1909

By A. J. Conelius, D. P. Sobocinski

This paper presents a correlation for predicting the behavior of a water cone as it builds from the static water-oil contact to breakthrough conditions. The correlation is partly empirical and involves dimensionless groups of reservoir and fluid properties and of production and well characteristics. The groups were deduced from the scaling criteria for the immiscible displacement of oil by water. The correlation is based on a limited amount of experimenfal data from a laboratory sand-packed model and on results from a computer program for a two-dimensional, incompressible system. Because the correlating groups are dimensionless, they can be used to estimate the performance of water coning cases not specifically considered in the correlation. However, despite its dimensionless nature, the correlation is not completely general and will not provide meaningful estimates of cone behavior in many situations. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The production of water from oil wells is a common occurrence which increases the cost of producing operations and may reduce the efficiency of the depletion mechanism and the recovery of reserves. We will deal with one cause of this water production, namely, coning. The coning of water into a producing well is caused by pressure gradients established around the wellbore by the production of fluids from the well. These pressure gradients can raise the water-oil contact near the well where gradients are most severe. Gravity forces that arise from fluid density differences counterbalance the flowing pressure gradients and tend to keep the water out of the oil zone. Therefore, at any given time, there is a balance between gravitational and viscous forces at points on and away from the completion interval. When the dynamic forces at the wellbore exceed gravitational forces, a cone of water will ultimately break into the well to produce water along with the oil. We can expand on this basic visualization of coning by introducing the concepts of stable cone, unstable cone and critical production rate. For instance, if a well is produced at a constant rate and the pressure gradients in the drainage system have become constant, a steady-state condition is reached. If, at this condition, the dynamic forces at the well are less than the gravity forces, then the water or gas cone that has formed will not extend to the well. Moreover, the cone will neither advance nor recede, thus establishing what is known as a stable cone. Conversely, if the pressure in the system is in an unsteady-state condition, then an unstable cone will continue to advance until steady-state conditions prevail. If the flowing pressure drop at the well is suffcient to overcome the gravity forces, the unstable cone will grow and ultimately break into the well. It is important to note that in a realistic sense, stable cones may only be "pseudostable" because the drainage system and pressure distribution generally change. For example, with reservoir depletion, the water-oil contact may advance toward the completion interval, thereby increasing chances for coning. As another example, reduced productivity due to well damage requires a corresponding increase in the flowing pressure drop LO maintain a given production rate. This increase in pressure drop may force an otherwise stable cone into a well. The critical production rate, well known in the literature, is the rate above which the flowing pressure gradient at the well causes water (or gas) to cone into the well. It is, therefore, the maximum rate of oil production without concurrent production of the displacing phase by coning. At the critical rate, a built-up cone is stable but is at a position of incipient breakthrough. Numerous papers have been published on critical rates. Some of the better known of these include the work of (1) Muskat and Wyckoff,' who first dealt with the coning problem; (2) Chaney, et al,' who developed expressions similar to those of Muskat but who presented results in a conven ient-to-use graphical form (the "Sun" method); and (3) Meyer and Garder,b hose analysis is based on radial-flow formulas. One assumption in critical production rate analyses is that the cone has built-up to just before its breakthrough into the well. But, these analyses reveal nothing directly about the time it takes for the cone to build up to this incipient breakthrough position. Thus, water-free oil can be produced from a well for prolonged periods at rates above the critical rate before the well reaches the condition to which the critical rate applies. The published literature contains little on the rate of growth of a cone. Experimentally, Meyer and Searcy studied the rate of rise of a cone in a Hele-Shaw model.' Additional related work on water breakthrough and produced water-oil ratios in water driven reservoirs was reported by Muskat," Hutchinson and Kemp," Henley, et al,' and Stevens, et a1.B Theoretically, the basic coning equations for a water-oil system can be developed by applying the conservation of mass to each of the phases, relating flow velocities with pressure by Darcy's law, and relating pressures across water-oil interfaces by capillary pressure. With the usual boundaries at the well and reservoir limits, the solution of the resulting equations for the time behavior of a water-oil interface constitutes a free-surface, boundary-value problem. The shape of the boundary depends on the internal potential distribution, while this

Jan 1, 1966

By W. H. Adams

Among the persistent experimenters of the present century no one man is more widely and favorably known in the metallurgical world than the late Peter Spence of Manchester, England, to whom we are indebted for many of the successful processes in the manufac ture of acids and alkalies, and for much of that perfection in me chanical detail which goes so far towards insuring success. For the past twenty-five years—a period covering the greatest changes in soda-processes and a revolution in acid-manufactures ef fected by the substitution of pyrites for brimstone—Mr. Spence was constantly engaged in perfecting the plant for the economical treat ment of pyritous ores; and no text-book has been complete without reference to his many inventions, patented or otherwise. The results of his labors for the past six years were not given to the public, by reason of the active competition existing among man ufacturers on the continent of Europe and in Great Britain ; but it was well known and conceded that the crowning triumph of his .life had been achieved in the successful working of his automatic desulphurizing furnace, which mechanically calcined "smalls" or finely crushed pyrites—the bugbear of all chemical manufacturers. That he was met by many delays and disappointments, and that

Jan 1, 1885

By AIME AIME

THE statements quoted below range widely over the field of contact between education and industry. 'Their sources are as indicated. True Education "Education must escape from its traditional warped and narrow views as to what constitutes life and preparation for life. It must train young men and women for vigorous, wholesome development of every important element of personality. It must build physical and mental health. For each student it must inform and discipline thinking in literature, in physical, bio- logical and social sciences, and in philosophy. It must awaken appreciation of beauty.

Jan 1, 1929

By Mitchell, Edmund I.

VARIOUS suggestions as to proper fees for engineering services have been put forth by individual practitioners and by the American Institute of Consulting Engineers, the Connecticut Society of Civil Engineers, the Iowa Engineering Society and the Mahoning Valley (Ohio) Engineers, for the guidance of both the engineer and his client. The American Institute of Architects also has a schedule of minimum charges (revised 1908). So far as can be determined, however, the four national societies representing civil, mining, mechanical and electrical engineering have never given consideration to this question. An examination of technical periodicals published during the past decade shows that these schedules make provision for three methods of charging; i.e., (A) a percentage of the cost of the completed project; (B) a per diem rate; and (C) a fixed sum. Suggested minimum charges are as follows:

Jan 1, 1921

By AIME AIME

INDUSTRIAL Pittsburgh, the center of the coal and iron and steel industry of the world, was host to the Coal Division at its Fall Meeting held there on Oct. 21 and 22 at the William Penn Hotel. The past year has witnessed remarkable progress in new methods of mining and burning of coal and many of the papers on the program discussed these developments. Nearly 100 had registered at the time of the first session on Wednesday morning and this number increased to 168 on Thursday. Owing to the large number of papers on the program, eighteen in all, it was necessary to hold group meetings on Thursday morning, with a capacity attendance at each meeting. . Chairman McAuliffe was on hand early Wednesday morning to open the meeting. George Otis Smith, representing President Lovejoy, came over from Cleveland where he attended the meetings of the Institute of Metals Division. Secretary Parsons arrived later from Cleveland and spent the whole morning with the executive committee of the Division. Doctor Smith, Secretary Parsons, and J. T. Breunich were the official representatives from Institute headquarters.

Jan 1, 1936

By W. Joseph Schlitt

The characteristics of successful heap and dump leach operations are first reviewed in a general sense. Then attention is focussed on solution management as the key operating parameter in leaching. The first part of this study includes a detailed conceptual analysis of fluid flow. This identifies the relationships between the flow parameters and the chemical and physical properties of the rock. Then these relationships are extended to practical systems in order to establish optimum application rates and solution distribution methods for heaps and dumps. The study shows that there is a maximum effective application rate, qmax, that can be used without causing solution short circuiting. This rate is a function of the minimum permeability in the heap or dump. The expression for qmax is qmax (gal/ft2/hr)[~]0.9 k (darcies). Here k is the appropriate permeability coefficient. Using this equation, qmax is found to be on the order of 1 gal/ft2/hr (4 cm/hr) for a typical heap or dump leach operation.

Jan 1, 1984

ON the face of it, the American Mining Congress meeting was a big success, as witness the smiles on the AIME members, pictured here, who attended. The grins were captured at Booth 232, where caricaturist Lenn Redman held forth for the Independent Pneumatic Tool Co., sketching 114 subjects in one week.

Jan 10, 1950

By K. L. Meissner

IT is well known that the so-called pure aluminum contains noticeable amounts of impurities, chiefly iron and silicon, and many investigators have studied the forms in which these impurities exist. Hanson and Archbutt1 state that iron exists in aluminum as FeAl3 and silicon as elementary Si. The solubility of FeAl3 in solid aluminum is practically zero, or at, least so small that the smallest trace of this compound is always visible as a separate constituent. Under the microscope an untrained eye can hardly distinguish, without etching, the two constituents FeAl3 and Si, but they can be differentiated by suitable etching reagents. Anderson2 also found the same results. At the same time, Merica, Waltenberg, and Freeman3 found a constituent of unknown composition. They found a small thermal effect, at 610° C., on the cooling curves of aluminum with small amounts of iron and silicon. The intensity of this effect increased with increasing silicon content, until an effect occured at 576° C. due to the eutectic between aluminum and silicon. The authors ascribed the effect at 610° C. to a compound, which they call "X constituent." It was thought to be a ternary compound containing iron and silicon and could be observed under the microscope as dark particles. Dix4 has published unetched photomicrographs of an aluminum with 0.51 per cent. iron, 0.99 per cent. silicon, and 0.32 per cent. copper that shows three constituents: the dark Si (black in the figure), the lighter FeAl3, which appears in half tone and crystallizes in needles, and a constituent of the same color as FeAl3 but of different crystal form, often resembling Chinese script. This last constituent, Dix thought, is a compound of Fe and Si; not the compound FeSi but a compound containing a relatively small amount of silicon. Therefore an alloy of aluminum, iron, and silicon (the copper should not be regarded in the following considerations) must contain the following four constituents: Al, FeAl3,

Jan 1, 1926

By G. E. Kedzie

The ore-deposits of ail that portion of the San Juan country within the borders of Ouray County are either in the tertiary ernptives or, confined to a relatively narrow zone, in the sedimentary beds just beneath them. The ore-deposits in the igneous formation

Jan 1, 1888