Search Documents

THE Institute met on Wednesday evening, May 22d, in the parlor of the Stanton House, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, President, in the chair. The President delivered an introductory address on the Brown Hematite Deposits of the Great Valley, after which the following papers were read and discussed : Note on the Result of an Experiment with the Wheeler Process of Combining Iron and Steel in the Head of a Rail, by W. E. C. Coxe, of Reading, Pa. On the Jenks Corundum Mine, Macon County, N. C., by Dr. R. W. Raymond, of New York City. On Wednesday afternoon, previous to the opening session, the members who had already arrived in Chattanooga, were taken by the Local Committee to the works of the Roane Iron Company, and Chattanooga Iron Company, and then to the top of Lookout Mountain, where, at the request of the members present, Dr. Hunt described the geological and geographical features of the Chattanooga region, with the magnificent panorama spread out before them as a map. On Thursday morning an excursion was made by steamboat down the Tennessee River as far as Shellmound. Here cars were taken to the coal mines of the Dade Coal Company, where the members were courteously received by Mr. E. B. Wells, the Superintendent. After a trip through the mines the party partook of a collation provided by the company. South Pittsburgh, on the Tennessee River, was next visited, where the Southern States Coal, Iron and Land Company have a large blast-furnace plant in the course of erection. After conducting the party through the works, shops, etc., Mr. James Bowron, the manager, entertained the members with graceful hospitality at dinner. The second session was held on Thursday evening for the transaction of business. The President, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, appointed Messrs. W. E. C. Coxe, R. H. Richards, and F. J. Slade, scrutineers, to examine the ballots for officers for the ensuing year.

Jan 1, 1879

By Charles E. Lundin, Albert S. Yamamoto

The phase eqrtilibria of the binavy system, Nb-Al, weye established by metallographic, X-ray diffraction, hardness, and thermal-analysis techniques. Three intermediate phases were identijied, Nb3.41, Nb2Al, and NbAl,. The N6,Al and NbAl phases have extensiue ranges of solubility. The maximum solubility of aluminum in niobiuitz is 23.0 i0.5 at. pct (8.0 wt pct) A1 clt 1960" i 10°C. The maximumt solinbility oj niobiunz in alunzinutz is less than 0.3 i0.1 at. pct (1.0 tut pct) fib. The A'h,Al and Nbgl interinediate phases forr peritectically at 1960° 1UcC and 1870" i 1U9C, respectively, zuhereas the NbAl, phase fornts congvuently fio11t the melt at 1605" 10°C. A eutectic reaction oc- The intent of an over-all research program was to develop niobium-aluminide-base coatings for refractory metals since these coatings exhibit useful high- curs at 57.8 i 0.5 at. pct (28.5 wt pet) A1 and 1500" 10°C between NbAl and NbAl3. The aluminum-rich region of the system has a peritectic reaction where liquid reacts with NbAL, to form aluminum solid solution. Structural and lattice -pavarneter data /or the intermediate phases were determined by X-ray diffraction analyses. An unusual transfov?nation having charactevistics of nucleation-growth and martensitic nleclanisils occurs on cooling the niobium solid solution in the region from 18 at. pct (6 wt pct) Al to 23 at. pct (8 wt pct) Al. The transfornzed product on rapid quenchirzg is an acicular NhAl. temperature resistance to oxidation. As a prerequisite, the phase equilibria of the system, Nb-A1, were necessary. A literature survey revealed that the phase-equilibria data reported by various investigators were rather incomplete and conflicting. Therefore a complete determination of the system was undertaken by the authors from 0 to 100 pct of solute addition.' In 1959 Savitskiyz presented a tentative diagram which

Jan 1, 1967

By Archer E. Wheeler, Milo W. Krejci

The Boston & Montana Reduction Works at Great Falls, Mont., was formerly the reduction works of the Boston & Montana Consolidated Copper & Silver Mining Co., and continued as the reduction plant for the independent company until June 1, 1910, when the consolidation of a large number of the operating companies of Butte was effected. It then became merged in the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. as the Boston & Montana Reduction Department of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. The history of copper converting at this plant, while not covering the entire period of the commercial use of the process in this country, does cover by far the larger part of it, and as the operation of and appliances for the process have undergone many changes during the time, it may, perhaps, be of some interest to put the record of these changes into permanent form. The plan followed in the preparation of this paper has been to give first a brief chronological record of the principal events and changes and then, even at the risk of some repetitions, to give more detaild accounts of some of these changes under separate headings. The headings for the complete paper are as follows: 1. General. Chronological Review. 10. Development of Different Classes 2. Mechanical Manipulation. of Converters After Class I. 3. Casting of Finished Copper. 11. Basic Lining. 4. Tamping of Linings. 12. Number and Size of Tuyeres. 5. Early Acid Linings. 13. Cast Copper Tuyeres. 6. Acid Linings With the Use of Ore. 14. Efficiency of Air. 7. Introduction of Flux Through the 15. Size of Converter Mouth. Tuyeres. 16. Height of Converter. 8. Bottom Blast. 17. Summary. 9. Disposal of Converter Slag, General Chronological Review. Ground was broken for the general concentrating and smelting plant in the spring of 1,891. The first departments to start operations were the concentrator in March, 1892, and the Brückner roasting and reverbera-tory smelting departments in April, 1892. The converter department

Jan 1, 1914

By P. D. Merica

The remarkable phenomena exhibited by the aluminum alloy known as duralumin were discovered during the years 1903-1911 by A. Wilm1,2 and have been described by him and by others. 3 4 5 6 The unusual feature of this alloy is the fact, as was shown by Wilm, that it can be hardened quite appreciably by quenching from temperatures below its melting point followed by aging at ordinary temperatures, which consists merely f allowing the material to stand at these temperatures. The hardness is not produced by the quenching alone but increases during the period of aging, which may be from one to three days. Cohn3, 5 gives data showing the increase of hardness of duralumin during aging, after quenching in water from about 450° C. Upon annealing, the alloy so hardened by aging is softened exactly as is hardened steel. The composition of this alloy usually varies within the following limits: Copper, 3 to 4.5 per cent.; magnesium, 0.4 to 1.0 per cent.; manganese, 0 to 0.7 per cent.; aluminum, balance; iron (as impurities), 0.4 to 1 per cent.; silicon, 0.3 to 0.6 per cent. Its density is about 2.85. It is used only in the forged or rolled condition. This alloy has been produced for some years commercially and is in demand for the fabrication of parts for which both lightness and strength are required, such as for aircraft. Its tensile strength will average 50,000 to 60,000 lb. per. sq. in. (3515 to 4218, kg. per sq. cm.) after appropriate heat treatment, such as that described by Wilm.

Jan 6, 1919

By I. Lowthian Bell

THERE has been probably no improvement introduced into the manufacture of iron which created more surprise in the minds of practical smelters and of scientific men than Neilson's discovery of the hot blast. In 1829, Messrs. Dunlop & Co. consumed at the Clyde Works, near Glasgow, nearly 79 tons of coal to make a ton of pig iron, of which about 20 cwts. was employed under the boilers of the blowing engines, leaving nearly 7 tons for the consumption of the furnace itself. In the year 1833, by heating the air to 612' F. (322' C.), they redoccd the 79 tons to 3 tons by the mere burning of 8 cwts. of coal in the apparatus for raising the blast to this temperature. The statenlent just given is strictly true in a commercial sense, but when we come to consider the question as one of physical science, it is necessary to eliminate some of the conditions which conduced to so extraordinary a result. Anterior to Neilson's time the fuel employed in smelting iron was coke, and it was supposed at that period, erroneously, however, that coal in its raw state, when burned with cold air, was totsally unfit for the purpose in question. This mineral, as it was obtained from the Lanarkshire coal-field, contained about 35 per cent. of volatile matter, but the process of charring it was performed in so unskilful a manner that instead of receiving 88 cwts. of coke from 135 cwts. of coal, 60 cwts. only was the product of the operation. Again, the reduced colisumption of carbon in the furnace itself was accompanied by a corresponding diminution of blast, and this was followed by an economy of half a ton in engine coal. After making a proper allowance, however, for all these collateral circumstances, we are within the mark when we admit that in actual coke, which is really the form the fuel has to assume before it is burnt in the blast-furnace, not less than 30 cwts. was saved by heating the blast to 615° F. (322° C.). This unexpected economy, be it remembered, was obtained by the combustion of the 8 cwts. of coal, somewhat wastefully applied in the hot-air apparatus. Numerous have been the opirlions advanced by different authorities in the scientific world to account for the apparent anomaly, bat none,

By J. E. Burke, C. S. Barrett

The fine lines shown in Fig I are typical of markings that ma): be detected after polishing and etching deformed specimens of alpha brass and other alloys. Although they have long been the subject of discussion by metallurgists their nature is still uncertain and the names that have been applied: to them, such as deformation line4 or strain markinas, indicate this uncertainky. In this paper which repotts the results of a furthcr investigatinn of their nature, they will be called strain mxrkings. Introduction Mathewson and Phillips1 described strain markinps in 1 916 and concluded that they appear only after 20 pet deformation. They objected to the markings being called slip tines believing this term should be sewrved for surface markings protluced by plastic deformntion. In 1921. vogel² described similar striations which appeared after polishing and etching the roughly ground surface of numerous alloys. He reported that the markings were crystallo-graphic in nature, and since they resemble Seumann hands in iron, at least superficially, he assumed them to be mechanical twins. In 1928, Matherwson reported work by Phillips which indicated that the lines were more readily produced by impact than by slow deformation and that in many cases the twins inside recrystallized grains were parallel to strain markings in the original deformed grains. This was taken as cvirlence that the markings coalesce into anncaling twins. and hence that they themselves are mechanical twins. Many attempts have been made to demonstrate directly that the markings are mechanical twins. In 1934, Samans described the results of X ray studies of two defomed crystals of alpha brass. Evidence was obtained which could be interpreted to indicate that the strain markings arc mechanical twins, and this remains the only direct evidence to this effect. Several other attempts to obtain similar evidence by X ray diffraction have failed5.8.7 although in no Ease was the original method of Samans employed. An

Jan 1, 1949

By C. S. Barrett, J. E. Burke

The fine lines shown in Fig I are typical of markings that ma): be detected after polishing and etching deformed specimens of alpha brass and other alloys. Although they have long been the subject of discussion by metallurgists their nature is still uncertain and the names that have been applied: to them, such as deformation line4 or strain markinas, indicate this uncertainky. In this paper which repotts the results of a furthcr investigatinn of their nature, they will be called strain mxrkings. Introduction Mathewson and Phillips1 described strain markinps in 1 916 and concluded that they appear only after 20 pet deformation. They objected to the markings being called slip tines believing this term should be sewrved for surface markings protluced by plastic deformntion. In 1921. vogel² described similar striations which appeared after polishing and etching the roughly ground surface of numerous alloys. He reported that the markings were crystallo-graphic in nature, and since they resemble Seumann hands in iron, at least superficially, he assumed them to be mechanical twins. In 1928, Matherwson reported work by Phillips which indicated that the lines were more readily produced by impact than by slow deformation and that in many cases the twins inside recrystallized grains were parallel to strain markings in the original deformed grains. This was taken as cvirlence that the markings coalesce into anncaling twins. and hence that they themselves are mechanical twins. Many attempts have been made to demonstrate directly that the markings are mechanical twins. In 1934, Samans described the results of X ray studies of two defomed crystals of alpha brass. Evidence was obtained which could be interpreted to indicate that the strain markings arc mechanical twins, and this remains the only direct evidence to this effect. Several other attempts to obtain similar evidence by X ray diffraction have failed5.8.7 although in no Ease was the original method of Samans employed. An

Jan 1, 1949

By Robert M. Keeney, Jay Lonergan

The electric smelting of manganese ore and the production of ferro-manganese did not exist as an industry, in the United States or elsewhere, previous to the outbreak of war in 1914. Ferromanganese had been produced, electrically, during times of high prices by two companies at Niagara Falls and by several European companies, but the production was spasmodic, and none was electrically produced when ferromanganese sold at from $35 to $40 per ton. Thus the electric smelting of manganese ore must be considered as a development caused by the high prices prevailing during the years 1916, 1917 and 1918, and the necessity of smelting domestic ore in order to fill the ferromanganese requirements of the steel industry of the United States, which increased from 189,088 tons in 1914 to 356,356 tons in 1918. The electric furnace is well adapted to smelting domestic ore because it can be located in small units near the source of ore supply. In 1918, the ferromanganese production of the United States was 333,027 tons, of which about 7 per cent., or 23,000 tons, was produced in the electric furnace. The electric furnace not only assisted materially in the development of a domestic-ore supply but made a considerable saving of coke, as it requires about 11/4 tons of bituminous or lignite coal per ton of ferromanganese compared with a blast-furnace consumption of 2.9 tons of coke per ton of ferromanganese. Some of the plants in the United States that smelted manganese orc in the electric furnace during the war and in 1920 are listed in Table 1. From early in 1919 to about February, 1920, little ferromanganese was produced in the electric furnace. During this period the price of ferromanganese (78 to 82 per cent. manganese) was about $100 per ton. During the first half of 1920, several plants resumed operation when the price of ferromanganese (76 to 80 per cent. grade) gradually increased to $200 per ton, delivered.

Jan 1, 1922

By Jay Lonergan, Robert M. Keeney

The electric smelting of manganese ore and the production of ferro-manganese did not exist as an industry, in the United States or elsewhere, previous to the outbreak of war in 1914. Ferromanganese had been produced, electrically, during times of high prices by two companies at Niagara Falls and by several European companies, but the production was spasmodic, and none was electrically produced when ferromanganese sold at from $35 to $40 per ton. Thus the electric smelting of manganese ore must be considered as a development caused by the high prices prevailing during the years 1916, 1917 and 1918, and the necessity of smelting domestic ore in order to fill the ferromanganese requirements of the steel industry of the United States, which increased from 189,088 tons in 1914 to 356,356 tons in 1918. The electric furnace is well adapted to smelting domestic ore because it can be located in small units near the source of ore supply. In 1918, the ferromanganese production of the United States was 333,027 tons, of which about 7 per cent., or 23,000 tons, was produced in the electric furnace. The electric furnace not only assisted materially in the development of a domestic-ore supply but made a considerable saving of coke, as it requires about 11/4 tons of bituminous or lignite coal per ton of ferromanganese compared with a blast-furnace consumption of 2.9 tons of coke per ton of ferromanganese. Some of the plants in the United States that smelted manganese orc in the electric furnace during the war and in 1920 are listed in Table 1. From early in 1919 to about February, 1920, little ferromanganese was produced in the electric furnace. During this period the price of ferromanganese (78 to 82 per cent. manganese) was about $100 per ton. During the first half of 1920, several plants resumed operation when the price of ferromanganese (76 to 80 per cent. grade) gradually increased to $200 per ton, delivered.

Jan 1, 1922

By G. S. Cole, H. Biloni, G. F. Bolling

An experimental investigation of sovlze low .melting point alloys sJtows that a substvucture of isolated depressions can be the first manvestation of constitutional supercooling on solid-liquid interjaces veuealed by decanting. Electron-tni cvop vobe and wletallo gvaplic esanzinations, in tlze bulk belzind the interjace, oj the segregation associated with these isolated areas substantiate tlzei&apos;v depressed nature, since a solute of ko < 1 is enriched, and a solute of ko > 1 depleted. In contrast, the pox structuve, a set of projections often veported in the literature, leaves no trace oj. segvegation. These obserl;atims, accovlrpanied by a brief review of recent literature, point to inconsistencies between experirrental obsevvation and the idea that the fornzation of a projection is a causal step in the development of a cellular substructure. An argument is presented to show instead how it is plausible for substantial depvessiom to form in the pvesence of constitutional supercooling at dislocations threading the solid-liquid interjace. THE development of constitutional supercooling during growth from the melt leads to the formation of the cellular solidification substructure. This well-founded association between structure and instability has been basic in understanding cellular substructure and micro segregation; however, the initial formation of structure seems unclear. Rutter and Chalmers,&apos; in definitive experiments and theory, noted that in the presence of constitutional a planar interface might break down: "resulting in the formation of a small projection on an initially plane or uniformly curved interface." That is, the breakdown from a planar to a cellular interface was implied to be initiated via a projection into the unstable liquid. Later, Walton et (11. found that a structure of isolated projections, termed "pox", appeared at solid-liquid interfaces decanted under growth conditions near the onset of constitutional supercooling; the pox were taken as the indication of the instability promoted by the supercooling. Tiller and Rutter4 in their extensive work studied the shape transitions at decanted interfaces which were generally observed to proceed as— pox, "irregular cells", elongated cells, regular (hexagonal) cells, and so forth. The pox varied in size from lo-&apos; to 1CT4 cm, and tended to disappear as cells increased in number and regularity, but as noted,4 the first real array of cells did not seem to be a development from the pox. In fact these authors implied a lack of connection because they stated that the pox are denser on "irregular cells", and as cell boundaries increase in number (i.e., the cells become smaller) there is less need for the pox which do dis- appear. Thereafter, most authors dealing with either experiment or theory have accepted the reality of pox and have used them as a criterion for the onset of constitutional supercooling. In contrast, Spittle, Hunt, and smiths have now suggested that pox are irrelevant artifacts comprised of such things as entrapped oxide. This proposal invokes the observations of weinberg6 and chadwick7 each of whom have shown that the act of decanting leaves a residual liquid on a decanted interface; the remnant solid layer of the order 10 p may thus contain particles that might have been transported from the external surfaces, or elsewhere, during decanting. With the incentive of this suggestion,= some further experiments and a reexamination of the literature have been conducted, in order to question the validity of pox as evidence of an instability and to examine the initial development of the cellular substructure. 1) EXPERIMENTS Single crystals of zone-refined tin (-99.9999 pct) were grown from the melt in a controlled fashion with various, small concentration additions of lead and antimony, for which ko < 1 and > 1, respectively. The crystals were decanted at conditions near the onset of constitutional supercooling and were thus appropriate for observation of slight perturbations. It was possible to observe two types of small departure from smooth or "planar" interfaces in both cases of lead or antimony additions. Some were projections and others, if in regular array of any type, were depressions. The crystals were etched with suitable reagents progressively dissolving the decanted interface surface; projections left no record, but depressions were continuously associated with spotlike areas contrasting with the rest of the interface. Traverses were made with the beam of an electron microprobe across the regions of contrast; with lead addition the persistent spots were lead-rich, and with antimony addition the persistent spots were antimony-poor. This is consistent only with a dominant role for depressions, because if the projections had left spots but were incorrectly catalogued, a reversed observation should have been made; that is, the Pb(ko < 1) should have been depleted and the Sb(ko > 1) enriched. In the work of Cole and inegard, and elewhere, regular arrays of structure associated with the initial stage of instability have been shown, in photographs and represented as pox or projections. We believe this to be erroneous, by inference, since whenever a regular array was observed, in the present examination, it consisted of depressions, regardless of the nature of the solute, ko 1. Fig. 1 is reproduced8 as an ideal example of the possible optical illusion involved; the observer can satisfy himself from the distribution of illuminated areas that the markings are depressions. Fig. 2 from the present investigation is an interference photograph of an interface similar to that in Fig.

Jan 1, 1967

By Harry V. Welch

Early in the development of the art of metallurgy, it was noted that a distinct difference existed in the character, collection possibility and health hazard of the "smoke" from lead furnaces and those from copper plants. Zinc-plant fumes, although not so detrimental to health, were closely allied in nature to those of the lead works. In Cottrell plants, there are sufficiently distinct differences in operation and amount of construction between those for lead and copper to justify their consideration under separate headings; therefore, while the application of the process at copper-reduction works was covered by the writer some two years ago in the Transactions1,† this discussion will confine itself more distinctly to "fume" collection. General information on the process has been presented in numerous articles and by many authors: Cottre112, Schmidt3, Bradley4, Anderson6, Labbe6, Shiga7, Rathbun8. "Fume" may be defined as material, metal or nonmetal, elemental or compound, evolved as a vapor from a furnacing or chemical reaction and condensing, chilling or reacting within the gas stream to yield a solid form, and in this definition liquid particles are solids in a sense as distinguished from gases or vapors. Such condensed particles are of minute form, on the order of "smoke," and, for example, on the order of a few hundredths of 1 micron (1 micron = 1/25,000 in.) to perhaps 3 microns, with agglomerates, in relatively small proportions of many particles. Metallurgically typical fume products are lead compounds, oxides, carbonates and sulphates; elemental zinc, more commonly encountered as a fume particle of zinc metal with a surrounding "skin" of zinc oxide; arsenic, both metal and oxide and some of its more complex salts such as added sulphates as found in flue dusts; antimony, more particularly its oxide forms; and elemental sulphur, sometimes a troublesome product, in Dwight-Lloyd sintering-plant fumes. These products, particularly the elemental or lower oxide forms, have relatively appreciable vapor pressures at the existing operating temperatures as reported by Welch and Duschak9, Ingold10, Johnstonll, Millar12,13.

Jan 1, 1937

By V. N. Krivobor

The study and use of low-carbon manganese steels have been curiously neglected in the general history of developments in alloy steels. Hadfield1 made an extensive study of manganese-iron-carbon alloys about 1886, which culminated in the wide application and use of Hadfield austenitic manganese steel. His alloys were nearly all high in carbon, as compared with the steels discussed in this paper, and he found a marked tendency toward brittleness in the alloys of medium and low manganese content, that is, below 7 per cent. manganese. As a result, there has been a widespread prejudice against the use of manganese steels containing between 1.0 to 3.5 per cent. manganese with comparatively low carbon. Steels of this composition have never been studied adequately in comparison with other alloy steels, and have had litttle use in practice. In a very recent paper by Sir Robert Hadfield2 the following statement appears: 6L... manganese-iron alloys with little or no carbon do not seem to offer any practical employment; they only become valuable in the presence of quite high percentages of carbon, 0.90 to 1.50 percent." The results of the present investigation are so contrary to the findings of Hadfield that the writers feel fully justified in presenting the preliminary report incorporated in this paper. Previous Investigations As early as 1886 the Terre Noire CO.3 in France produced alloys containing up to 2.5 per cent. of manganese, using ordinary low-grade

Jan 1, 1927

By R. B. Snow

THIS paper describes a technique of polishing and etching specimens of open-hearth furnace slags or hearth aggregates for identification of the crystalline constituents-lime (CaO), tricalcium silicate (3CaO•SiO2), dicalcium silicate (2CaO-SiO2), monticellite (CaO•MgO-SiO2), or forsterite (2MgO•SiO2), with especial emphasis on the mineral merwinite (3CaO-MgO.2SiO2). With proper standardization, this identification does not require the use of the petrographic microscope. The composition of basic open-hearth slags and furnace bottoms falls, almost without exception, within systems containing CaO, MgO, "FeO," MnO and SiO2, in which the number of basic molecules so greatly exceeds the orthosilicate ratio (two molecules of base to one of silica) that free basic oxides, and combinations between them such as aluminates or ferrites, are present in cooled specimens. Orthosilicates of (CaO + MgO) are the most common in such specimens, since in nearly all cases, except premelt slags, the molecular ratio of (CaO + MgO) to SiO2 is more than 2 to r. When sufficient lime is available it combines with the silica to form dicalcium silicate (2CaO•SiO2), which contains little, if any, MgO, FeO or MnO in solid solution whereas the latter oxides combine to form the oxide solid solution known as periclase. If the lime present is insufficient to form dicalcium silicate (2CaO•SiO2) it combines with MgO to form either merwinite (3CaO•MgO.2SiO2) or monticellite (CaO-MgO•SiO2); these minerals take little if any FeO or MnO into solid solution and the remaining MgO, FeO and MnO combine as periclase. This generalization seems to be valid for basic slags and furnace bottoms, since minerals such as CaO-MnO•SiO2 and CaO-FeO-SiO2 are found only in slags in which the lime-silica ratio is less than 2 and are not observed in specimens from furnace bottoms. The identification of crystalline constituents in such materials, especially of fine crystals in the groundmass, is difficult under the petrographic microscope. They are often masked by their neighbors because of their small size in relation to the thickness of the thin section and because of the presence of opaque or colored constituents. The indices of retraction and the optical sign of the mineral are sometimes difficult to determine because of the small size or because of twinning or of inclusions within the crystal. Moreover, the positive identification of merwinite (3CaO•MgO.2SiO2) from its optical properties is usually difficult in the presence of dicalcium silicate (2CaO•SiO2). CaO, MgO, 3CaO•SiO2 and 2CaO•SiO2 in open-hearth slags have been identified for a number of years in the U.S. Steel Corporation Laboratory by the usual

Jan 1, 1947

By D. O. Noel

IT is, of course, expected that manufacture of the various metal powders should involve numerous methods adapted to the specific characteristics of the metals themselves. Several methods for powdering a particular metal may be available, but the physical characteristics of the powder as produced by the several methods may be quite different. In the final analysis, the application of the metal powder dictates the physical properties that the metal powder must possess, and this, to a very large extent, will determine which of several possible methods of manufacture is adopted. Sometimes powder of the same metal is produced by more than one method, each powder having specific characteristics that make it particularly suitable for its application. For purposes of classification, the various methods of powdering metals can be grouped as follows: 1. Machining. 2. Milling (by ball mills, stamps, attrition mills, etc.). 3. Shotting (pouring molten metal into water, air, etc.). 4. Granulation (by stirring molten metal while solidifying). 5. Atomizing (disintegrating by steam, compressed air, etc.). 6. Condensation of metal vapor. 7. Reduction of oxide powders. 8. Chemical precipitation. 9. Electrolytic deposition. 10. Sintering (for producing alloy powders). 11. Formation of an alloy followed by dissolving or otherwise remov-ing one of the alloying constituents.

Jan 1, 1938

By F. Weinberg

It has been suggested, for some time, that the behavior of metals under high-temperature creep conditions is strongly influenced by the behavior of the grain boundaries present in the material. This has led to a number of investigations1-6 in which attempts were made to measure the properties of the grain boundaries themselves, both to determine their contribution to the creep process and to obtain further knowledge of their intrinsic structure and properties. The present investigation was undertaken to extend the observed data under more closely controlled experimental conditions and to attempt to clarify sonie of the discrepancies in the literature. A brief report of the preliminary results has been published.7 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE For the present investigation, controlled orientation specimens were used having plane boundaries which terminated at the specimen surface. Trierys-tal specimens were used instead of the bicrystal type of Puttick and King,&apos; in order to simplify the gripping technique required to apply a shear stress along the boundary. The aluminum used was obtained from the Aluminum Francaise and was of 99.994 pct purity, containing 0.002 pct each of Cu, Fe, and Si. The aluminum tricrystals were grown horizontally from the melt, in graphite boats, and in an argon atmosphere, following the technique developed by Chalmers.&apos; The orientation of the tricrystals was controlled by using seed crystals separated by mica inserts. Thermal conditions were adjusted to produce tricrystals having boundaries which were macroscopically straight, parallel to the growth direction, and perpendicular to the top surface. Following growth, the tricrystals were carefully cut with a jeweller&apos;s saw to the test specimen shapes shown in Fig. l(a) and l(b). In Fig. 1(a), the boundaries subjected to shear stresses are indicated AB and CD: Points A and C are the ends of the mica inserts separating the seed crystals; points B and D are at lateral cuts made in the specimen. It was found that the slots left by the mica inserts at A and C had to be enlarged slightly, by cutting, to ensure that the boundary terminated freely at these points. A shear stress was applied to the boundarks by gripping the upper two legs in file-faced Inconel grips and suspending a weight from the lower part of the specimen held in similar grips, as shown schematically in the diagram. The test specimens shown in Fig. 1(b) were cut from long

Jan 1, 1959

By Herbert Hoover

I HAVE been greatly honored as your unanimous choice for President of this. Institute, with which I have been associated during my entire professional life. It is customary for your new President, on these occasions, to make some observation on matters of general interest from the engineer&apos;s standpoint. The profession of engineering in the United States comprises not alone scientific advisers on industry but, in great majority, is comprised of the men in administrative positions. In such positions, they stand midway between capital and labor. The character of your training and experience leads you to exact and quantitative thought. This basis of training in a great group of Americans furnished a wonderful&apos; recruiting ground for service in these last years of tribulation. Many thousands of engineers were called into the army, the navy, and civilian service for the Government. Thousands of high offices were discharged by them with credit to the profession and the nation. We have in. this country, probably, one hundred thousand professional engineers. The events of the past few years have greatly stirred their interest in national problems.&apos; This has taken practical. form in the maintenance of joint committees for discussion of these problems and support to a free advisory bureau in ,Washington. The engineers want nothing for themselves from Congress.. They want efficiency in government, and you contribute to the maintenance of this bureau out of sheer idealism. This organization for consideration of national problems has had many subjects before it, and I propose to touch on some of them this evening.

Jan 1, 1920

By Richard Franchot

IN the inevitable conquest of the blast furnace by metallurgical science in the solution of the problem of how to make more and better iron or to burn less coke, or both, it is highly desirable first to find out why the efficiency of the furnace generally is no better than it is. The immediate need would seem to be a theory to account for the existing facts. Explanation for the quantitative results obtained in current practice has been strangely lacking. One reason for this may be found perhaps in the custom of think-ing of efficiency in terms of coke consumption. Before efficiency can be explained there should be a fairly exact knowledge of what it is. A statement of the pounds of coke used per ton of iron made may have value in indicating comparative results in smelting similar ores with similar cokes, but it tells very little of the efficiency of the operation. When the materials are different, one practice burning 1800 lb. may be less efficient than another using 2000 lb. A better measure is the pig and slag per unit of coke. What is needed is a specific description of efficiency as a&apos; definite quantity having an exact meaning. Such description is afforded by expressing efficiencies in terms of the respective proportions of the fuel energy absorbed in and chargeable to the various actions known to be -taking place in the furnace. Concretely, the energy value of a pound of coke having 85 per cent carbon blown with air heated to 1200° F. is about 7650 lb.-cal. (13,770 B.t.u.). And the work done in smelting a pound of average iron from hematite, comprising reduction and melting with production of a half pound of free running slag from an equal weight of limestone,

Jan 9, 1926

By R. E. Steiner, A. F. Weinberg, R. J. Van Thyne

Uranium solubility in molten bismuth was determined in the temperature range 350" to 600°C, varying from 0.09 wt pct to near 2 wl pct, respectively. Zirconium and magnesium, simulated fission products, and sodium were found to increase or decrease uranium solubility in bismuth in the temperature range 370° to 420°C, depending upon the addition or temperature. Data were obtained by both chemical analysis of samples obtained by filtration from saturated melts and by measurement of the variation of electrical resistance with temperature. IN a study for the United States Atomic Energy Commission, a Liquid Metal Fuel Reactor Experiment (LMFRE) was proposed in which a solution of uranium dissolved in molten bismuth served as both the fuel solution and the primary coolant. It was proven necessary to add other elements to this solution for certain desirable properties: 1) zirconium acts to prevent reaction of the fuel solution with the graphite core (which would result in the formation of uranium carbide) and also to inhibit mass transfer of iron and chromium from the walls of the reactor tubing to cold spots resulting in blockage; and 2) magnesium acts as a deoxidant and prevents loss of uranium. In addition to these intentional additives, other elements entering the solution are: 1) fission products which are a by-productof reactor operation, 2) sodium (the secondary coolant) through possible small leaks in the heat exchange system, and 3) iron and chromium from the container walls. Each of these elements may affect the solubility of uranium in the fuel solution. Since the concept of this reactor is based upon a liquid solution, the relatively low solubility of uranium in bismuth will dictate the minimum temperature at which the reactor heat exchanger can be operated. The solubility of uranium in liquid bismuth and the effect of some additives on this solubility have pre- viously been investigated1-&apos; (more recent results6" became avaliable after initiation of this investigation). However, some discrepancies between the various results have been noted, and also the cumulative effect of the several additions or impurities was not known. This investigation was commenced to obtain definitive results. MATERIALS Analyses of the materials used are presented in Table I. Although ostensibly of extreme purity (99.999 wt pct), the bismuth was found to contain a significant amount of impurities, probably oxides. Except for determination of the binary system, Bi-U, prior to use all bismuth was hydrogen-refined and

Jan 1, 1962

By L. H. Reiss, J. Groult, L. Montadert

Many fields, where the reservoir is composed of sandy layers, show great complexity because of the lack of continuity which results from a particular type of seditnentation. This complexity may be a factor of prime importance in studying reservoir drainage, especially in the displacement of oil by water or gas. This paper describes work done to study this heterogeneity and its influence in the exploitation of the fields of the lower Devonian sandy shale in the Fort Polignac Basin in Algeria. Two lines of research were followed. 1. On the border of the hasin, a detailed sedimentological study established rules for the distribution of the sandy zones, which furnished hypotheses necessary for devising a geologic model of the reservoir. A certain number of sandy zones were recognized and characterized by their sedimentation. 2. In the interior of the basin, production logs deterrnined the productivity profile. Study of these point data led to a description of the distribution of oil and gas phases in the reservoir so that the continuity of different zones between the wells could be deduced. These techniques were applied to the study of the lower Devonian sandy shale reservoir of Zarzaitine. The sedimentological study guiding the correlation work, with the aid of the conventional static data (logs and cores), led to the establishment of a useful geologic model of the reservoir. Production logs, thanks to the contribution of dynamic elements, permitted corrobora-tion of the model. In particular, the logs confirmed separation, as proposed by the sedimenfological study, of two comparable sandy groups by revealing the continuity of a thin impermeable layer, invisible on conventional logs. INTRODUCTION The heterogeneity of sandstone reservoirs considerably influences the distribution of fluids, as well as their displacement in the reservoir. Rational development of a field and maximum recovery of hydrocarbons are closely tied to an exact and precise knowledge of the intern architecture. We will try to show how it is possible I refine the knowledge of the reservoir by seeking qui different and varied sources of information. Productic geology, the group of techniques which leads to idei concerning reservoir architecture and its geometric descris tion, furnishes the framework of this undertaking. Of these techniques. those used so far are qui varied. Descriptive as well as quantitative, the technique partake as much of classical geology as of reservo science. They include (1) geologic studies of the enti basin, especially a stratigraphic and sedimentologic study of the reservoir member at its outcrop, detail1 observations of cores taken from wells and, finall oriented cores; (2) interpretation of geophysical dat (3) interpretation of electric logs, nuclear and sonic lo and dipmeters: (4) petrophysical study of the reserve on samples taken from wells; (5) reservoir dynamics (stu of the production history and, in particular, interpretati of production logs); and (6) analysis of the fluids a thermodynamic studies. This incomplete list could also include (1) study the migration of the fluids, (2) geochemistry (chemi characterization of the oils), (3) regional hydrodynamii and (4) injection and detection of tracers. If most of these techniques are classic, attention i nevertheless be called to applying two of the techniql in conjunction: the study of the reservoir member its outcrop and the study of dynamic distribution fluid phases in the reservoir through use of product logs, used in the study of the sandy shale reservoirs the lower Devonian of the Fort Polignac Basin, Alge in particular, their application to the study of the 2 zaitine field where they have led to a new and satisfact model of the reservoir will be described. THE ZARZAITlNE FIELD Situated in the interior of the Fort Polignac 8 about 150 kilometers (km) north of the lower Devol outcrop, the Zarzaitine Devonian oil field was discovc On Ian. 28, 19&apos;&apos; (Figs. 1 and l8). It is in the fern a monocline truncated by two perpendicular fault: great throw, with a downthrown section to the north\: Erosion at the top of the structure has caused one of it to disappear. It is a reservoir with a gas cap an m coefficient on the order of 1:5, open to the aql On the northeast, with the oil zone covering an Of 106 sq km and with initial oil reserves of 222 mi

Jan 1, 1967

By C. D. Michaelson

Bridging the gap between have and have-not nations is one of the necessities of the present era. The responsibility for accomplishing this must be assumed by the affluent industrial societies of the world, both through their governments and through private enterprise. Despite a discouraging number of instances where companies established in underdeveloped countries have been expropriated, U.S. industry must not abandon such ventures. Instead, it should tailor them to the needs and aspirations of the host nations. One way in which industry can minimize the danger of expropnation is to enter into partnership with the government of the host nation. Kennecott Copper has recently done this in Chile, becoming 49% owner of a company formed to expand and operate the El Teniente mine. So far, the partnership has produced marked benefits not only for Chile, but also for Kennecott. The memory of D.C. Jackling serves chiefly to remind us how much we owe to the pioneers of our industry. Jackling was one of the giants. Orphaned at the age of two, he made his way through sheer persistence and plain hard work. His brilliance gave rise to a vision, and his tenacity made his vision a reality. Foreseeing that economies of scale would make the handling of low-grade ore profitable, he introduced the revolutionary concept of open-pit copper mining. During World War I, the defense effort of the United States was irnrneasurably strengthened by the tremendous supplies of copper from the western mines that Jackling had made possible. Again in World War 11, the demands for copper were supplied, and the nation once more had profound reason to be grateful to this rugged, stubborn man who had long ago ventured into the mountains and unlocked their wealth. We are now embarked upon another great era of change, and we must devise new concepts to meet it. The task is not only to create new techniques of mining, but to forge better ties between men and institutions which will let us work in harmony with the techniques we have. We might recall that while Jackling was a man of towering pride and formidable will, he was also adept at getting others to share his vision and join his purpose. Today our reach for cooperative endeavor must go far beyond our own shores as we seek to develop the buried riches of distant lands. And we would do well to remember that Jackling&apos;s remarkable insight would have come to nothing had not British investors been willing to provide much of the initial capital. As was true of so many early enterprises in America, European capital was absolutely essential. CORPORATIONS ABROAD - AN EXPANDING ROLE Today the situation is quite different. The United States is now a capital-surpIus nation and looks abroad for opportunities to employ its capital profitably. On the other hand, we have become dependent on foreign sources for supplies of vital raw materials, while we seek

Jan 1, 1970