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By K. K. Landes

The north central and northeastern states supply over 50 pct of the chemical and metallurgical limestone produced annually in the United States, and Ontario is the leading source of this material in Canada. About three fourths of the chemical and metallurgical stone produced in this area comes from Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Ontario. The specifications, physical and especially chemical, for chemical and metallurgical stone depend upon the end use, but in general the tolerance for impurities is so low as to rule out most limestones and dolomites. Both high calcium limestone and dolomite are used in the metallurgical and chemical industries. The principal metallurgical use is as a flux in iron ore blast furnaces and open hearth steel furnaces. The major chemical uses are in lime burning and soda-ash manufacture. Other important uses include glass manufacture, in making calcium carbide, and in sugar factories. All deposits of high quality carbonate rock are definitely finite. Invariably and inevitably they diminish in either thickness or quality laterally so as to become unworkable as chemical and metallurgical stone. The size of these high quality lenses ranges from a few thousands of tons to hundreds of millions of tons. The best hunting for new supplies is in the geologic formations known to contain premium quality deposits. However, because of high transportation costs, carbonate rocks, to be workable, must be close to market, dollarwise. Definitions: Chemical stone is limestone or dolomite used as a raw material by the chemical industry. The major chemical uses are in lime burning and soda-ash manufacture. Other important uses include glass manufacture, making calcium carbide, and in sugar factories. The specifications for chemical stone depend entirely upon the end product. Some uses require dolomite, some require high calcium limestone; in a few instances, notably in lime burning, either type of carbonate rock can be used as raw material. As a general rule, a fairly pure stone is necessary and for certain particular uses the tolerance for some elements such as sulfur, iron, and phosphorus may be extremely small. Metallurgical stone is used as a flux in furnace operations, especially in the blast furnace where iron ore is converted into pig iron and in the open hearth furnace where pig iron is made into steel. Either limestone or dolomite can be used in the blast furnace, but only high calcium stone is charged in the open hearth (except for rice-size dolomite used as a refractory). There are no rigid chemical specifications for blast furnace stone, but low silica, alumina, sulfur, and phosphorus are desirable. For open hearth use, in addition to low magnesia, a very low sulfur content is also specified by many furnace operators. For furnace use, fluxstone also must be sufficiently shatter resistant that it will remain in lump form during transport and charging into the furnace. Commercial stone is the term applied in the trade for crushed stone used for roadstone and in concrete aggregate. Many of our best chemical and metallurgical limestones are too soft to qualify in the Los Angeles abrasion test for use as commercial stone. However, some limestones, and a higher proportion of dolomites, do qualify for commercial stone and so can be sold to either market. Place Value: Even the highest grade limestone is still a bulk commodity with a relatively low value per ton. As a matter of fact there is very little difference in the average price per ton between high grade chemical and metallurgical stone and crushed limestone used commercially. Most high quality stone is produced in large operations with consequent low cost per ton whereas most commercial stone is produced in relatively small local quarries. As in the case of other bulk commodities most limestone buyers pay more for transporting the raw material than the cost of the stone at its source. For this reason steel furnaces and chemical plants

Jan 1, 1961

Jan 1, 1970

JAMES A. BARR Consulting Engineer Mt. Pleasant. Tennessee Washington. D.C. BEHRE DOLBEAR G COMPANY Consulting Mining Engineers and Geologists 11 Broadway New York 4, N. Y. BLANDFORD C. BURGESS Registered Professional Engineer Mining Consultant Monticello, Georgia GLENVILLE A. COLLINS Mining Engineer Uranium examinations Cable "Coins" 210 La Arcada Bldg. Santa Barbara, Callf.

Jan 1, 1952

By M. W. BERNEWITZ

ALL live producers and manufacturers of metals and alloys are investigating new uses for their products. The tin and tin-plate industry is no exception. One-third of all the new tin mined and refined is consumed in making tin plate. Several billions of cans are each year made from tin plate for the preservation of nearly 200 kinds of food. There are more than 500 tin-plate mills or individual stacks in the United States, which country makes more tin plate than all other countries combined and exports large quantities. As much as 1,800,000 tons of till plate has been made in a year in this country, and 28.000 tons of tin has been used in this period for this purpose. In sonic years a third of the till is so consumed; in 1933 it was half of the supply.

Jan 1, 1935

[JAMES A. BARR Consulting Engineer Mt. Pleasant, Tennessee Washington, D.C. BEHRE DOLBEAR & COMPANY Consulting Mining Engineers and Geologists 11 Broadway New York 4, N. Y. BLANDFORD C. BURGESS Registered Professional Engineer Mining Consultant Montieello, Georgia GLENVILLE A. COLLINS Mining Engineer Uranium examinations Cable "Coins" 210 La Arcada Bldg. Santa Barbara, Calif.]

Jan 1, 1952

By Arthur Mackwell

The role of the precious metals is changing rapidly. They are becoming primarily materials of modern industry, and their decorative and monetary functions are diminishing in relative importance. Certainly gold is still the premier metal for jewelry, as silver is for silverware. But these uses are not growing nearly so fast as are the uses of these metals in a variety of industries. This is even more true of the platinum metals. Moreover, this is true despite the fact that the precious metals are highly expensive and liable to substitution by the base metals in cases where this is feasible. For the fact is that the physical and chemical properties of the precious metals make them relatively invulnerable to substitution; where they can be replaced by the base metals, they have been, and the opportunity for further substitution is, therefore, limited. SILVER In November 1969 the United States Treasury stopped minting the only remaining coin with any silver content. That was the silver-clad Kennedy half dollar, which had a silver content of approximately 40%. The step was taken out of necessity, because of the rising shortfall between world mine production and consumption. It was important to divert the 35 to 40 million oz of silver per year used for the minting of this coin into the open market, where it would be available for industrial consumption. This decision was important, not only for its practical effect but also for what it symbolized. Only four years earlier, in 1965, the Treasury had used 320 million oz of silver" for the full range of coinage. Now not an ounce of silver goes into the United States coinage. The reason is simple and yet complicated. For many years the U.S. Treasury had purchased silver at prices which provided a subsidy to domestic producers. As a result, silver producers were eager to sell to the Treasury, and that agency built up a huge supply of the metal -almost 2 billion oz by- 1961. But, as the free-market price neared $1.29, the basic melt value of the coinage, the Treasury became a seller of silver, not a buyer, and its stock was depleted rapidly. The Treasury lost more :than a billion ounces of silver in the years 1962 through 1965, and it continued to lose silver, both through coinage and through sales to consumers, through 1969. The Government continued to sell silver to consumers at the rate of 1.5 million oz a week, even after terminating the 40% silver Kennedy half dollar. But it was apparent that the Government stocks could last no more

Jan 1, 1976

JAMES A. BARR Consulting Engineer Mt. Pleasant; Tennessee Washington, D.C. BEHRE DOLBEAR G COMPANY Consulting Mining Engineers and Geologists 11 Broadway New York 4. N. Y. BLANDFORD C. BURGESS Registered Professional Engineer Mining Consultant Monticello, Georgia LENVILLE A. COLLINS Mining Engineer Uranium examinations Cable "Coins" 210 La Arcada Bldg. Santa Barbara, Calif.

Jan 1, 1952

By J. C. Detweiler

THE Jacksonville plant of Humphreys Gold Corp., operating under leases from National Lead Co. and Rutile Mining Co. of Florida, recovers rutile, ilmenite, zircon, and monazite from an ancient beach deposit containing about 2.5 pct of these minerals in combination. The location of the plant is unique, being situated about ten miles from the center of Jacksonville, Fla., surrounded by a thriving suburb. Two four-lane highways pass within 1 ½ miles of the plant. An expressway now under construction will pass over the tailing pile, within 500 ft of the mine office. The elevation at the plant site is approximately 50 ft above sea level. This is one of two mines producing titanium minerals and zircon in Florida. Another mine is also operated by Humphreys at Starke, about 50 miles southeast of Jacksonville. The Jacksonville deposit extends about six miles in a north-south direction, averaging approximately one half mile wide and twenty ft thick. Values begin at the surface over most of its length and ter-

Jan 1, 1952

Jan 1, 1966

By Charles Jones

IN the winter of 1902, while occupying the position of mining and examining engineer for the Mountain Copper Co., Ltd., of Keswick, Cal., I had occasion to discuss with the General Manager, among other things, the question of the enormous waste of sulphur in smelting cupriferous, pyrite ore, and to cast about for means to utilize this waste or to render the fumes innocuous to vegetation. The decreasing rate of production of California farms, the consequent need of fertilizers, and the opportunity thus offered to utilize large quantities of sulphuric acid in the manufacture of superphosphates naturally brought the subject to the practical and commercial side of phosphates. I was informed that the company had made efforts to find phosphates in the West, without success. I advised as a start placing inquiries for phosphate deposits on the Pacific coast in the current mining ,journals. This was done, with the result that in January, 1903, from an advertisement in the Mining and Scientific Press we got track of a deposit in Rich county, Utah, through T.J . Wilson, of the Southern Pacific railroad in San Francisco. As soon as snow in the mountains would permit, in May, 1903, I undertook an examination of the property, with the result of recognizing the importance of the find, in spite of its lack of facilities for transportation at a commercial figure. On June 15, 1903, I concluded my report by saying, "This may be one of the world's deposits of phosphates." On Nov. 17, 1903, I concluded my report for the season in the following words : " I have now no hesitation in saying that I believe the Carboniferous formation so largely developed in the Wasatch mountains of Utah and the mountains of the Great Basin will prove to be one of the greatest storehouses of phosphoric acid in the world."

Jan 10, 1913

By Enrique Touceda

FOR a number of years prior to the world war, the firm of Geo. H. Thacher & Co., of Albany, N. Y., was engaged in the manufacture of marine and other gray-iron castings. At -the outbreak of the war the firm decided to specialize in the manufacture f propeller wheels. It attacked the problem, therefore, from a foundry point of view, seeking to produce a casting that would be so accurate that no subsequent machining would be required on the blades, also from the point of view of the ship builder. There were two general methods f manufacture, the shortcomings of which have been freely acknowledged. In the sweep method, the nowel, or bottom half-mold, for each blade is swept up by a spindle beam and pitch race, while the top half-mold for each blade is built up individually. In the pattern method one individual blade, with the hub or hub portion, is mounted on a spindle and the individual -blade mold formed, the pattern is then rotated on the spindle to the position- for the next blade, etc. In rare cases wheels were made from a solid pattern. Owing to the cost of the pattern, its failure in many instances to be correctly made, and (when made of wood) its early and sure distortion the disadvantage of this practice is obvious, while metal patterns in most instances were prohibitive in cost. In these methods both green-sand and loam molding was practiced. The casting produced by either method can be considered only as a blank from which the propeller must be machined. The back surface f each blade must be chipped too the templet and through this procedure chipped to such accuracy, as will be required for a static balance. Inasmuch as the' work done by the machine tool is confined to the driving face of the blades, not only is perfection most difficult, but corrosion will be greater because of the removal of the dense skin f the casting and the local strains set up by the pneumatic tool in chipping. To produce a finished 9-ft. propeller for a Navy destroyer required from 8 to 21 days f foundry work and about the same length of, time for the machining. Through the use f the Thacher process, only as many hours are required, besides it is possible to produce a finished casting in perfect conformity, with any particular propeller-wheel design,

Jan 4, 1921

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period Oct. 10, 1916 to Nov. 10, 1916. ANCHOR, HANS C., Supt., Dome Extension Mines Co., Ltd., South Porcupine, Ont., Canada. BABCOCK, EARLE J., Dean, College Of Min. Engrg., State Univ. Of N. Dak., Grand Forks, N. Dak. BIDDIS0N, P. McDONALD, Construction Engr., The Ohio Fuel Supply Co., 52 W. Gay St., Columbus, 0. BOISE, PAUL T., Asst. Mgr., Stimpson Equipment Co., Felt Bldg., Salt Lake City, Utah. BOURNE, RALPH H., Vice-Pres Whiting Foundry Equipment Co., Harvey, Ill. BROWN, EDWARD OTTO FORSTER, Min. Engr., 706-707 Salisbury House, London, E. C., England.

Jan 12, 1916

By Gorr W. W., Wyche E. H, R. Smith

The combination of high strength and corrosion resistance of cold-worked 18 Cr, 8 Ni steel has been advantageously utilized for some time, particularly in aircraft and rail car structures. There are, however, certain limitations on the use of such materials because the high strengths can be obtained only by cold-working, limiting the available products to sheets, strip, wire and tubes. The authors sought to overcome these limitations by resorting to precipitation-hardening, which has been used so successfully in nonferrous metallurgy but only to a limited extent in iron-base alloys. Accomplishment of this objective not only overcame the limitations, but also effected certain improvements in mechanical and other properties. This paper is an account of the development by Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation of a precipitation-hardening 18-8 stainless steel (called Stainless W‡ and tentatively identified as type 322). A description is given of its composition and metallurgical characteristics, heat-treatment, physical and mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Development of the New Steel For a considerable length of time the authors were unable to determine the mechanism of the precipitation-hardening process that had been noted by Ffield18,19 in 18-8 Ti or 18-8 Cb after cold-working and reheating to moderately elevated temperatures. All known variables were exhaustively studied, but with little success. However, results began to indicate that chemical composition was the most important variable, particularly the ratio of austenite-forming to ferrite-forming elements. The investigators then focused their attention upon the composition, and, in particular, upon the element titanium and its mode of alloying in the presence of other elements. A heat was obtained that could not be brought to the softness level of annealed 18-8. The response to cold-straining and aging* was very marked by previous standards, and, more important, cold-straining was found to be entirely unnecessary to produce the precipitation-hardening effect. The chemical composition of this heat was: C, 0.06 per cent; Mn, 0.54; P, 0.016; S, 0.016; Si, 0.58; Ni, 7.28; Cr, 17.60; Ti, 0.90; Al, 0.17. For some time the development work, particularly on composition, was carried

Jan 1, 1947

By Gorr W. W., R. Smith, Wyche E. H

The combination of high strength and corrosion resistance of cold-worked 18 Cr, 8 Ni steel has been advantageously utilized for some time, particularly in aircraft and rail car structures. There are, however, certain limitations on the use of such materials because the high strengths can be obtained only by cold-working, limiting the available products to sheets, strip, wire and tubes. The authors sought to overcome these limitations by resorting to precipitation-hardening, which has been used so successfully in nonferrous metallurgy but only to a limited extent in iron-base alloys. Accomplishment of this objective not only overcame the limitations, but also effected certain improvements in mechanical and other properties. This paper is an account of the development by Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation of a precipitation-hardening 18-8 stainless steel (called Stainless W‡ and tentatively identified as type 322). A description is given of its composition and metallurgical characteristics, heat-treatment, physical and mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Development of the New Steel For a considerable length of time the authors were unable to determine the mechanism of the precipitation-hardening process that had been noted by Ffield18,19 in 18-8 Ti or 18-8 Cb after cold-working and reheating to moderately elevated temperatures. All known variables were exhaustively studied, but with little success. However, results began to indicate that chemical composition was the most important variable, particularly the ratio of austenite-forming to ferrite-forming elements. The investigators then focused their attention upon the composition, and, in particular, upon the element titanium and its mode of alloying in the presence of other elements. A heat was obtained that could not be brought to the softness level of annealed 18-8. The response to cold-straining and aging* was very marked by previous standards, and, more important, cold-straining was found to be entirely unnecessary to produce the precipitation-hardening effect. The chemical composition of this heat was: C, 0.06 per cent; Mn, 0.54; P, 0.016; S, 0.016; Si, 0.58; Ni, 7.28; Cr, 17.60; Ti, 0.90; Al, 0.17. For some time the development work, particularly on composition, was carried

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1897

[Executive J. V. W. REYNDERS, Chairman WILLIAM H. BASSETT E. DEGOLYER I-I. C. BELLINGER RICHARD PETERS, JR. Finance GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Chairman H. A. GUESS F. JULIUS FOHS Admissions GEORGE D. BARRON, Chairman DAVID LEVINGER P. A. MOSMAN H. K. MASTERS J. A, SINGMASTER Alternates F. G. BREYER C. W. HAMILTON F. E. PIERCE]

Jan 1, 1928

By C. van der Poel, R. L. Chuoke P. van Meurs

When an initially planar interface between two im-ttitcihle liquids is displaced at constant rate, U, nor-mat to the front, instability will occur for all rates greater than a critical rate. U, given by provided the Fourier decomposition of the spatial pertmrbcrtiott or deformation of the moving displacetment front contains modes with wavelengths. A, greater than a critical wavelength, given by tit there expressions, p, p and k, with the subscripts I and 2 distinguishing the two 1iquids under consideration, are density, viscosity and effective pemeability coefficients respectively; g is the absolute value of the acceleration due to gravity; and cos (zz') is the direction cosit7e between the vertical carlesian coordinate z' (positive upward) and the z coordinate norma1 to the initially plane macroscopic interface taken positive in the direction from Liquid I to Liquid 2. U is the average volumetric velocity (injected volume of liquid pet. unit time per unit of area normal to Z) and is positive for Liquid I displacing Liquid 2, negative for the reversc displacement and r2 is an effective inter-fucial tension (for displacements between parrallel plates, t0= s the ordinary bulk interfacial tension). further, there is a wavelength of maximum instability given by For natural perturbations, this wavelength will preclotninate and characterize the form of the instability as a quasi-sinusoidal deformation, i.e., viscous fitzgers of peak-to-peak separatiotr, A,,. Comparison of experitient with theory rei'eals tltat these considerations are recsonably valid for displacements in hoth parallel plate chantzels and nnconsoli-clutt'd glass ptnvder packs. These results are. tij particular interest for interpretation of data from laboratory experiments with regard to fielil applica/iotz.s. It is quite possible for A,, although st7zall relative to the large lateral dimension of the reservoir, to rxceed the greatr.st lateral extent of the lahoratory sample or model. If it does, frontal displace- ment occurs in the laboratory experiments, and oil INTRODUCTION Thc puposes of this paper are to present theoretical and experimental evidence for occurrence of macroscopic instabilities in displacement of one viscous fluid by another immiscible with it through a uniform porous medium and to compare available experimental data with some predictions of a theory of instability developed by the first author. The instabilities are referred to as macroscopic in the sense that spatially quasi-sinusoidal, growing fingers of the displacing liquid are formed, the width and peak-to-peak separation (wavelength) of which is large relative to a characteristic length of the particular permeable medium such as grain size. Visual models of two kinds have been used to obtain observations: displacement of oil by water-glycerine solutions through the flow channel formed by closely spaced parallel plates and displacement of oil by water with and without initial interstitial water through unconsolidated glass powder packs, employing the technique of matching indices of refraction. In all cases we have observed macroscopic instabilities or fingers under conditions predicted by the theory to be favorable for their occurrence. The phenomenon discussed here is not the production of streamers due to gross inhomogeneities such as permeability stratification of the porous medium. It is our object to show, on the contrary, that a quantitative prediction of finger spacing is possible in a porous medium known to be macroscopically homogeneous and isotropic throughout. The importance of the phenomenon in its influence on the configuration of oil and water with respect to oil production behavior was noted earlier by Engel-berts and Klinkenberg' who coined the term "viscous fingering". THEORY Necessary and Sufficient Conditions ior Instability anc Initial Kinematics There are several levels of increasing complexity in the theoretical description of instabiIity of fluid displacements in permeable media. Of these, the simplest description, ;tdapted to low permeability systems, is selected for presentation.' More inclusivc tlescriptions are reserved for separate publication.

By L. E. Fish, G. S. Wyman

CHUQUICAMATA open-pit mine is capable of producing a total of 105,000 tons daily. When the sulphide plant is operating to capacity the distribution of this quantity will be approximately 30,000 tons sulphide ore, 30,000 tons oxide ore and 45,000 tons of waste. At that time the combined capacity of the oxide and sulphide plants will be about 540 million lb of copper per year. Twenty one benches have been opened to date and all are still active except the three top ones at the northeastern limit of the pit. These have been pushed back to final slope line. The pit is 8850 ft long, 3540 ft wide and 980 ft deep. Benches are not all developed to a standard height as the large development shovels used in cutting new benches have been of different size and range. At this time new benches 521 ft high are being developed with an' 11-yd shovel. Ore haulage through the greater part of the pit operation has been on down grades to the crushing plant. With the opening of bench F-4 in April 1944 the first adverse-grade ore haul was encountered. Of the total tonnage now being mined, 35 pct comes from the four benches that are below the level of the crushing plant yard. Waste had been dumped on the same or nearly the same level as the bench from which it was removed up to the opening of bench F-4. Waste from this and lower levels is hauled to the level of the crusher, yard where it must cross the flow of ore traffic to reach the only available dumping space to the east of the mine. The average ore haul is 3.13 miles one way shovel to crusher, and the average waste haul from that portion handled by railroad is 3.32 miles one way from shovel to waste dump. Waste that is being removed by truck haulage from the upper part of the -mine is hauled an average of 1 mile. Ore loaded by trucks is hauled 3/4 mile to a car loading ramp and then by rail to the crushing plant. Drilling and Blasting There are two types of development for blasting being used: One for opening new benches and the other for bank shooting. The former consists of 9a in. diam churn-drill holes drilled 11.8 ft center to center in rows 10.2 ft apart with the holes staggered in the rows thus giving an equilateral-triangle pattern of 11.8 ft on a side. After the first block, 492 ft long by 71.5 ft wide, is shot in the pattern described above, the cut is advanced by smaller shots consisting of four rows of holes spaced 23 ft center to center with the rows 23 ft apart. These shots are fired in conjunction with side shots in which the holes are drilled 33 ft center to center and 29.5 ft back from the toe, thus squaring up the bank for subsequent shooting. An average bank shot consists of about 60 holes drilled in two rows parallel to the face, 30 holes to

Jan 1, 1952

By Douglas D. Donald

The New Jersey Zinc Co. successfully holed through a 2 1/2-mile haulage tunnel connecting its new Ivanhoe shaft with the Van Mater Shaft at Austinville, Va. This 8x 10-ft cross-section tunnel was driven from both ends and met at a point approximately a mile from one shaft and a mile and a half from the other. In order to make certain that the faces met accurately on line and grade it was necessary to refine conventional mine surveying practices. The mines that are serviced by these shafts are located in the southwestern part of Virginia approximately midway between Roanoke and Bristol at the west foot of the Blue Ridge. While the presence of lead-zinc sulfide ores has been known in this area for more than 200 years, it was in 1902 that New Jersey Zinc Co. acquired the Austinville property, which has been in constant operation since that time. About ten years ago the company undertook an extensive diamond drilling program at Ivanhoe several miles to the southwest. This program was successful in locating sufficient ore to justify the purchase of a number of the properties in this area and plans were made to develop the new orebodies. The discovery of this ore as well as substantial addi- tional reserves at Austinville resulted in a decision by the company to increase its daily milling capacity to 3000 tons, of which about 1000 tons would be supplied from the Ivanhoe mine. After careful consideration of all possible methods of transporting this volume of ore from Ivanhoe to the mill, it became evident that diesel locomotive haulage through a 2½-mile tunnel between the two mines would best suit prevailing conditions. Since the lowest operating level, known as the 1100 level, of each mine would be at approximately the same elevation, it was obvious that such a tunnel should be driven on this level. Not only would this tunnel facilitate feeding Ivanhoe ore into the underground crusher and skip loading installation at Austinville, but it would also open up a known orebody 5000 ft southwest of the Van Mater shaft. In addition it would provide a valuable diamond drilling base from which a large and a potentially favorable but untested block of ground might be explored. In order to hasten the completion of the tunnel, it was felt that it should be driven from both ends. ENGINEERING CONTROL PROCEDURES It was vital that the tunnel junction be made accurately on line and grade; thus it was felt that engineering control of an unusually high degree of reliability was required to prevent an accumulation

Jan 1, 1959

By AIME AIME

THE 123d meeting of the Institute was held in New York Feb. 14 to 17, 1921. The total registration was 1199, as compared with 1138 at the New York meeting in 1920. The weather was a strange and welcome contrast to that of last year, when New York was buried under six feet of snow as the result of the fiercest blizzard in its history. This year there was no snow, and the weather was said to be much more like an Arizona winter than New York. A complete program of the Technical Sessions is on p. 9. The discussions of the papers presented will be published in pamphlet form as soon as possible and will be noted in MINING AND METALLURGY in the usual way.

Jan 1, 1921