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Helium has probably aroused more varied scientific curiosity than any other single element. Discovered by spectroscopic examination of the sun during an eclipse in 1868, helium is now known to exist not only in the sun and other stars but on earth occluded in minerals, accumulated with natural gases in pockets in the earth's crust, and in the atmosphere surrounding the earth. Astronomers study its presence in the various stars of the universe for clues to their origin and history. Geochemists and geologists study its occurrences in rocks, minerals, and meteorites to determine the age of the earth and the manner of its formation. Pathologists study its effect on living tissues in search for the ideal combination with oxygen for artificial breathing mixtures in medicine, diving operations, and space vehicles. Chemists study its physical properties and use it to trace the sequence of events in reactions in which it does not participate. Geneticists and bacteriologists use it for special studies. Physicists study its behavior when liquefied and the behavior of materials cooled to nearly absolute zero by its use. Nuclear physicists learn more about the universe through study of the nuclear reactions that produce it. Through study of helium and greater knowledge of its origin and properties, science continues to unlock some of nature's more closely guarded secrets. Unknown on earth before 1895, and not discovered as a minor constituent of natural gas until 1905, helium with its simple atomic structure--a nucleus with two electrons orbiting in a closed shell--is a unique element. It is next to the lightest gas, only hydrogen is lighter. It occupies position number 2 in the Periodic Table of the Elements and heads the list of so-called "rare" or ?noble? gases. Most of the naturally occurring helium has an atomic mass of 4.003874 (oxygen = 16). A trace (1.7 x 10-5 mol percent) is the light isotope helium-3 whose atomic mass is 3.0169800 Unstable isotopes of mass numbers 5 and 6 have been authenticated. Isotopes of mass numbers 7 and 8 have been reported, but their existence is less well established. All the heavier isotopes are radioactive and are the product of nuclear reactions.

Jan 1, 1968

By Edward E. Johnson

The principal purpose of this study was the development of an engineering and economic model of a hypothetical large-scale open pit gold mining operation. The guiding concept in developing the model was the idea that, through study of a number of such models, it would be possible to evaluate a mineral property and to make reasonable estimates of the benefits to be derived from research in mining and metallurgy. The model by use of a computer is able to produce results easily and quickly when cost factors are varied. Cost factors may be varied as a result of assumptions of improved technology or of assumptions of assuming different approaches or methods to accomplish a particular segment of the mining or processing operation. The discounted cash flow rate of return was used to measure the effect of changes in costs or expected revenue. In this study, assumptions based on past processing practices were made in an effort to reduce costs of processing the ore These assumptions were: (1) Eliminating the low-grade cyanide circuit; (2) reducing the quantity of material to be processed by screening after crushing; and (3) using a combination of assumptions (1) and (2). All three assumptions resulted in reduced capital investment and operating cost that caused substantial increases in the rate of return.

Jan 1, 1968

The 1967 Lignite Symposium was held at Grand Forks, N. Dak., on April 27-28, 1967. This was the fifth of these technical meetings and the fourth which was cosponsored by the University of North Dakota and the Bureau of Mines. These symposia have provided a meeting place where current developments concerning technology and utilization of solid fuels (lignite) are presented. There was a registration of 255 persons from 24 States, the District of Columbia, six Canadian Provinces, Germany, and India. Many segments of coal or energy oriented organizations at many levels were represented. During the meeting, 18 presentations were made covering developments in electrical power generation, mining, estimation of reserves, combustion, gasification, and chemical and speciality uses of low-rank coals; these are com-piled in this Information Circular to provide a record of the symposium and to permit wider dissemination of the information. Proceedings of the other meetings have also been published.3

Jan 1, 1968

By Irving Wender

This report describes Bureau of Mines experiments and reviews the work of others on the exposure of coal and coal-derived products to gamma rays and some other types of radiation. Results are presented on tests of three bituminous coals and a lignite that had been pulverized to minus 200-mesh particles and exposed to 1,000 megaroentgens of gamma irradiation from spent-fuel elements of a nuclear reactor. Of about 20 chemical and physical tests in Bureau work, only mass spectrometry of gases evolved during vacuum pyrolysis of the coals to 450° C gave results indicating differences in the irradiated and unirradiated samples. Mass-spectral distribution curves for CO and CO2 evolution showed fewer irregularities (reversals of curvature) for irradiated coals; thus, mass spectrometry appears to be the most sensitive method for determining radio-induced changes in coal. It is concluded that coal is not significantly altered by gamma irradiation owing to the resistivity of its highly condensed ring structure. High-level gamma irradiation, therefore, is unlikely to prove advantageous in coal processing and utilization. Specially treated coals, because of resistivity of coal to radiation damage, may be useful as an absorbent in processing radioactive wastes.

Jan 1, 1968

By W. L. Eaton

This report is the second in a series concerning the Bureau of Mines program for microfilming maps of abandoned mines in the Pennsylvania anthracite region; a catalog of the microfilmed maps of mines in the Wyoming Basin of the Northern anthracite field is presented. The first report I.C. 8274, published in 1965, was a catalog of microfilmed maps of mines in the Eastern Middle anthracite field. Additional catalogs will be published as the microfilming of significant mining areas is completed.

Jan 1, 1968

By George Markon

The importance of United States coal exports as a component of the national economy, the potential for growth of these exports, and the inter-national character of this sector of the coal industry are described in this report. The report summarizes some of the many background elements in the rise of United States coals to preeminence in highly competitive world markets. It presents some insight into this important sector of United States industry and the positive contribution of this sector to the Nation's balance of payments. It contains pertinent basic statistics on production, trade, and consumption of coal in most major markets for 1960-66. The report examines the movement of United States coals from mines to export markets, tracing and describing origins, exit ports, prices, and trends as well as inland and ocean freight rates and other data vital to an under-standing of some of the practices and complexities of the United States coal markets abroad. A brief sketch of coal production and consumption in principal importing countries is also presented with a short review of some of the more current practices and problems of these countries. Coal produced in inland areas of the. United States can be moved to and distributed economically within coal-producing countries overseas and in Canada. Quality coals from the United States can successfully compete with foreign coals in nearly any area of the world on a truly economic basis because of their high grade and their low cost which derives from the high productivity of the miner and from reasonable ocean freight rates. Because of tariffs, trade embargoes, quotas, and other restrictions, how-I ever, foreign coal markets are relatively limited. Further limitations are imposed in some countries by economic conditions which restrict all imports as a matter of financial and economic necessity. Despite these obstacles, United States coals have brought lower cost quality coals to a large segment of the foreign energy market.

Jan 1, 1968

By William S. Miska

The study is an economic evaluation of historical, current, and projected refractory uses in the iron and steel industry of the United States. The first part of the report presents a refractories classification and identifies principal trends in the refractories industry; such as, value and volume of shipments, prices of finished refractory products, the number of manufacturers and plants for refractories production and marketing. The main part of the report treats refractory use patterns and technologic developments affecting refractories usage in the iron and steel industry. Changes in use patterns in each furnace type, refractory, and installation costs and the future outlook for refractories in ironrnaking and steelmaking are covered. The last part of the report identifies the principal raw materials used in refractories production and treats trends in refractory raw material consumption. An appendix to the report contains historical time series graphs of shipments of refractory types used primarily by the iron and steel industry and principal refractory raw materials sold or used by producers. An equation of the line of best fit was calculated from the earliest to the latest year in each time series, usually 1950 to 1965; these were extrapolated in order to derive volume estimates for the year 1975.

Jan 1, 1968

By Warren E. Morrison

A simplified energy model for the United States is quantified for a recent historical period. The basic model and calculated quantified structures are used for a number of analytical case studies that estimate midterm and long-range shifts in patterns of energy resources demand and required supply. Historical data series are presented for the years 1947 to 1965 in the form of integrated energy balances by source, form, and consuming sector. In case studies I to XII, conditional projections of historical trends of energy demand and required supply are made for the midterm period 1966 to 1980. The projections are carried out by correlation of major energy components with relevant independent variables such as major economic indicators. Simulations of the medium-range projections to 1980 are carried out by varying the assumptions for the determining variables to produce high-and low-range projections for the midterm period. Case studies XIII to XXII are long term contingency or technological forecasts to the year 2000. These cases assume technological changes or innovations that produce major shifts in the long term pattern of energy consumption and the mix of required resources. The domestic resource base is assessed in its ability to meet projected or forecast demand for energy resources under the midterm and longrun assumptions made in the various case studies. Various energy issues or problems identified from the analyses of the case studies are discussed, and possible alternative approaches to solutions to these issues or problems are suggested.

Jan 1, 1968

By John D. Spencer

Air and water pollution and land reclamation relating to coal mining and utilization continued to be featured in research and technologic work on coal by the Bureau of Mines in 1967. Details of the environmental studies are given in this report, along with accounts of other research relating to the mining and utilization of coal. Other studies that were continued during 1967 included health and safety, mine explosives, coal preparation and transportation, coal utilization processes, chemistry and properties of coal, inspection and analysis, and inter-national activities. Publications issued in 1967 are cited throughout the report and in appendix C. Bureau of Mines research centers and laboratories are listed in appendix A, and organizations contributing to or cooperating in the work, in appendix B.

Jan 1, 1968

By Sidney Katell

This report, covering the period January 1967 through December 1967, is a continuation of a series that began with the publication of Information Circular 7516 in October 1949. It is the ninth in a series of reports prepared in cooperation with the American Association of Cost Engineers. The abstracted articles are concerned with all phases of cost engineering in the field of chemical and petroleum plants and related subjects. They are from the following sources: 1. American Association of Cost Engineers Bulletin. 2. Bureau of Mines Information Circulars. 3. Bureau of Mines Reports of Investigations. 4. Chemical Engineering. 5. Chemical Engineering Progress. 6. Chemical Week.

Jan 1, 1968

The principal activities of the Bureau of Mines Explosives Research Center during fiscal year 1967 (July 1, 1966, to June 30, 1967) arc reviewed in a part 1. Part 2 presents short abstracts of the publications issued during this period in the Bureau series and in other media. Part 3 describes a short study on the shock initiation of hydrogen peroxide not destined for publication elsewhere. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Bureau of Mines gratefully acknowledges the support received through cooperative agreement in fiscal year 1967 from The Dow Chemical Company Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Inc.

Jan 1, 1968

By William R. Barton

Dimension stones, with their almost infinite variety, have a broad range of properties and uses. Natural stone was beyond doubt the first mineral commodity used by man. Today dimension stone has widened to encompass building exteriors and interiors, decorative and ornamental modes, statuary, monuments, paving, curbing, flagging, roofing, and miscellaneous categories such as blackboards, surface plates, and honestones. For many purposes, it competes with greater or less success with alternate materials such as concrete, metal, brick, plastic, or glass. The almost ubiquitous geographic distribution of stone resources is the basis for a dimension stone producer industry in almost every State and in almost every land. In the United States, alone, dimension stone sold or used by quarries is valued at 2 million to 3 million dollars annually. Mining, finishing, transportation, and use technology have been modernized, resulting in a broader spectrum of stone products and new adaptions in use. Increased efficiencies also have been reflected in costs and prices and, coupled with gains that should be realized from current research, auger well for continued vitality of the ancient and honorable dimension stone craft.

Jan 1, 1968

By James Paone

This report on the state of the art of horizontal boring technology for underground power transmission installations was prepared by the Bureau of Mines at the request of the Department of the Interior. This paper describes the different machines and methods used in augering, impacting, pushing, drilling, and machine tunneling horizontal holes through soil and rock. A review of the borehole survey and guidance tools and techniques applicable to these methods is also given. Nonboring methods used for emplacement of power distribution and transmission lines are briefly discussed. The paper ends with a brief technical forecast, an analytical summary of the state of the art, and recommendations based on power industry needs. Horizontal boring techniques for power distribution lines installation are adequate to meet the requirements of the power industry, particularly where such burial involves relatively short distances in soil or soft rock. For burying power transmission lines, particularly in the harder rocks and over relatively long distances, horizontal boring methods are not as well advanced. Research and development as well as economic incentives to equipment manufacturers could substantially improve the state of the art. Obstacle detection and guidance systems for directing boreholes to specified targets need major improvements to meet the requirements of the power industry for underground burial of distribution and transmission lines

Jan 1, 1968

By Franklin D. Cooper

This Bureau of Mines study reviews current and proposed methods of extracting copper from sub-mill-grade ore by leaching. The amount of copper produced by hydrometallurgy has increased dramatically in recent years and will probably be about 200,000 tons per year by 1970.

Jan 1, 1968

By Philip C. Tully

This bibliography contains 2,072 citations to technical and scientific literature about helium and alpha-particles abstracted by 12 abstract service publications during 1962. Citations are listed by 16 major subject classifications with several subclassifications to minimize areas of literature search. Automatic data processing was used to reduce the time and labor required to compile the bibliography.

Jan 1, 1969

By Robert L. de Beauchamp

The Bureau of Mines reviewed aluminum chloride technology to determine the problems associated with its preparation from minerals, and to ascertain the best areas for research to solve these problems. Commercial AlC13 production processes are described and the ?state of the art? for the preparation of AlC13 from aluminous materials is evaluated. Areas for further research are indicated.

Jan 1, 1969

By Sidney Katell

This report, covering the period January 1968 through December 1968, is a continuation of a series that began with the publication of Information Circular 7516 in October 1949. It is the tenth in a series of reports prepared in cooperation with the American Association of Cost Engineers. The abstracted articles are concerned with all phases of cost of engineering in the field of chemical and petroleum plants and related subjects. They are from the following sources: 1. American Association of Cost Engineers Bulletin. 2. Bureau of Lines Information Circulars. 3. Bureau of Mines Reports of Investigations. 4. Chemical Engineering. 5. Chemical Engineering Progress s 6. Chemical Week. 7. Coal Age. 8. Coal Mining and Processing. 9. Cost Engineering. 10. European Chemical News. 3 11. Hydrocarbon Processing. 12. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 13. Oil and Gas Journal. 14. Petroleum Engineer. 15. World Oil.

Jan 1, 1969

Applications of helium in aerostatics, cryogenics, space, and undersea work are described in papers from the Helium Applications Symposium. Specific subjects include investigations of X-ray sources by means of balloon-borne instruments, meteorological soundings by balloons, powered lighter-than-air flight, tethered balloons, refrigeration techniques, large superconductive magnets, electronic devices, superconducting transmission lines, high-precision thermal conductivity analysis, He3-He4 dilution refrigerators, uses of helium in the atomic energy program, helium-cooled nuclear reactors, power- plant applications for high-temperature gas-cooled reactors, helium welding of stainless steel tubing and pipe, development of helium-shielded arc welding, helium as a diluent in spacecraft atmospheres, helium utilization in the Saturn-Apollo program, and helium utilization in diving environments. Papers from the Helium Centennial Symposium at the national meeting of the American Chemical Society cover the history of the discovery of helium, the history of its development by the Bureau of Mines from a laboratory curiosity to an important item of commerce, the source of helium in natural gases, the world of liquid helium, and liquid helium-3.

Jan 1, 1969

By Forrest T. Moyer

The safety record of the coal-mining industry, both anthracite and bituminous, in 1966 was improved over that of 1965 in all general measures of injury experience. The improvement was more pronounced in the anthracite industry. The total of 10,679 disabling work injuries comprised 233 fatal and 10,466 nonfatal injuries, 26 and 692 fewer, respectively, than in 1965. The number of fatalities in 1966 was the lowest annual total since complete records were started in 1910. Similarly, the number of nonfatal injuries in 1966 was lower than in any year since 1930 when such data were first collected.

Jan 1, 1969

This study was done to evaluate the economic and technical considerations of using pozzolanic materials in order to guide cement manufacturers, pozzolan producers, contractors, Government organizations, and others interested in concrete construction work. Five hundred and thirty-eight samples of pozzolanic raw materials were taken from 27 central and western States. These samples were evaluated by petrographic procedures, and about 200 of the most promising ones were given a complete series of physical tests (American Society for Testing and Materials) to evaluate further their suitability as a pozzolan. This investigation showed that deposits of natural pozzolan materials were widely dispersed in the central and western parts of the United States but that exploiting these deposits would depend on whether they could compete economically with an increasingly abundant industrial waste product--fly ash.

Jan 1, 1969