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By James H. Cobbs

The utilization of large diameter drilled holes for mine shafts seems to have had its beginning in Europe about 1850 (28) where the mining industries of Germany and The Netherlands first used drilled shafts. Recent shafts in softer formations of diameters as large as 25 feet and as deep as 1, 700 feet have been drilled in both The Netherlands and Germany. The first shaft drillers utilized cable tool or churn drilling techniques which limit both hole diameters and drilling speeds. Though some churn drilling of shafts is still performed, rotary drilling has been the dominant technique for many years.

Jan 1, 1973

Real gross national product increased at a larger-than- expected annual rate of 8.3 percent in the first quarter of 1984, with both consumption and investment spending increasing significantly in real terms (table 1). Residential and nonresidential fixed investment increased at annual rates of 25.7 and 14.6 percent during the first quarter of 1984, and investment in nonresidential structures, which declined in 1983, also increased during the first quarter of 1984, nearly attaining its 1982 level. The annual level of personal savings increased $27.7 billion, while the personal savings rate (the ratio of personal savings to disposable income) increased to 5.8 percent during the first quarter. The increase in the personal savings rate comes as welcome news to analysts concerned over the flow of loanable funds to the private sector and the impact on interest rates in 1984 of increased private and Government demands. U.S. Minerals Industry Performance A major upswing in the performance of the metal mining sector occurred during the first quarter of 1984, with production increasing almost 11.2 percent from January to March, The recovery of the metal sector is also reflected in the performance of primary metal industry profits, which were positive during fourth quarter 1983 following seven consecutive quarterly losses (table 1). Two thousand nine hundred more metal mining production workers were employed in February 1984 than in February 1983.

Jan 1, 1984

By Walter W. Kaufman

This Bureau of Mines manual for design of surface mine haulage roads covers such aspects of haulage road design as road alinement (both vertical and horizontal), construction materials, cross slope, and drainage provisions. Traffic control and design of proper lane widths to promote safe vehicle movement are included, as are suggested criteria for road and vehicle maintenance and for runaway-vehicle safety provisions. The aim of this publication is to provide those involved with surface mine haulage road design with a complete manual of recommended practices that, if implemented, will promote safer, more efficient haulage routes.

Jan 1, 1977

By Donald F. MacDonald

This report aims to discuss, from the viewpoint of the mining geologist, the bearing of topographic and geologic conditions on cer- tain problems that arose in the construction of the Panama Canal. T+ is published by the Bureau of Mines as a contribution to engineer- ing liters ure because it presents information that shows how geology and topography must be considered by the mining engineer in plan- ning excavations and in removing loose material and solid rock in the safest and most efficient manner. The printing of this bulletin has been approved by the governor of the Panama Canal, as it was impracticable for the Panama Canal to give this information to the general public in any of its publications. The "sword cut" of Goethals and his men did not sever the Isth- mian barrier; it merely clove the hills to a depth of 40 feet above sea level. This cut and the great areas of low valleys at both ends of it have been covered with fresh water to the 85-foot level. This high-level lake held by dams at either end, the 85-foot locks, by which ships enter it, and the dredged approaches from the two oceans constitute the Panama Canal. In the preparation of accurate estimates concerning the cost of large excavations information regarding the geologic conditions, as obtained by a study of natural features, is necessary. Drill holes and test pits will furnish supplementary geologic information, but without a gen- eral knowledge of the geologic conditions it will not be possible for the constructing engineer to answer such questions as the following: (1) What rock units will be encountered in the excavation and in what proportion? (2) What will be the cost of drilling each for blasting (3) How far apart and how deep must the drill holes be to efficiently break the rock of each to the proper size-not too fine nor yet too coarse? In this connection jointing, fissuring, bedding, toughness, and other physical characteristics must be considered (4) How steep will the slopes of the excavation stand, and to what extent will they wash and trench on exposure to the atmosphere? (5) What proportion of the material to be excavated is of such physical character that it may be utilized in any other part of the project, such as in concrete construction, road making, wharves, breakwaters, riprap work, etc.

Jan 1, 1915

By P. M. Daling

The objectives of this study were to examine a representative cross section of formal safety analysis techniques developed for the nuclear and aerospace industries, to recommend those methods that would be suitable for application to the mining industry, and to include those methods in a user's manual. Volume II of this report, the user's manual, describes several methods that were determined to be immediately transferrable to the mining industry. The handbook gives detailed instructions on appropriate application and utilization of the methods. Other techniques will require further development before they can be effectively transferred to the mining industry.

Jan 1, 2006

The 1965 Lignite Symposium, the Louth in a series and the third sponsored by the University of North Dakota and the Bureau of Mines, was held at Bismarck, N. Dak., on April 29-30, 1963. These symposia provide a forum for those interested in the technology and utilization of solid fuels, especially lignitic coals. As part of the meeting, a 200-mile field trip was taken including; inspection of (1) the 200-megawatt, pulverized lignit-fired Leland Olds plant of Basin Electric Power Cooperative, under construction near Stanton, N. Dak.; (2) the site of the Glunharold mine of the Truax-Traer Coal Co., Division of Consolidation Coal Co., where a wheel excavator was being assembled; (3) the operating Beulah mine of Knife River Coal Mining Co., subsidiary of Montana-Dakota Utilities Co., near Beulah, N. Dak.; and (4) the 400-megawatt, hydroelectric Garrison Dam powerplant, near Garrison, N. Dak.

Jan 1, 1966

By William J. Douglas

This document describes the development of a conventional mining equipment data base, and an approach for conducting industrial engineering studies of arbitrary mining systems employing network techniques. Data was acquired through underground time studies. Each member of a four-man field team was assigned to a specific machine during each shift for which observations were conducted. Using digital wrist watches and networks describing the man-machine interactions, all events occurring luring the course of each shift were recorded on cassette tapes. The tapes were transcribed, coded, keypunched, and validated using computerized editing techniques. The resulting data files were processed to provide statistics relating to activity durations and event frequencies. The results were used to evaluate operator, machine, and system performance for each section which was observed. Equipment, reliability, and maintainability analyses were conducted using the industrial engineering data files in conjunction with historical information collected at the mine site.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. F. Hambley

This report documents the work carried out by Engineers International, Inc. and its subcontructor, W. G. Pariseau, in order to develop a design manual for ore passes for open pit mines. The work included an extensive information search, novel analyses in rock flow theory, cost and time estimation for shaft and raise construction methods, and development of design criteria for the are pass proper, dump point, and draw point.

Jan 1, 1983

By Kenneth R. Maser

This report describes a research and development program sponsored by the United State s Bureau of Mines. The purpose of the program was to develop reusable explosion-proof bulkheads for a cross-cut emergency shelter, and to study the implementation of such bulk-heads, and the resulting shelters, as part of an emergency escape plan in a normal coal mining environment. The first part of this report reveals a number of significant conclusions regarding the application of emergency shelters. A study of the cause s of, and the conditions prevailing during a mine emergency indicate s that ideal placement of the shelter s would be midway along developing entries, and at the inter section of butt and main entries. The proper spacing of shelters is based on the travel capability of trapped miners, which is in turn dependent on the height of coal. The life of a given emergency shelter, based on an analysis of the above information, will be anywhere from 6 months to 10 years. Consequently, some shelters are regarded as "temporary?, while others "permanent?.

Jan 1, 1975

By X. Shi, K. S. Kaspnak

"The generation of free radicals from reactions of nickel (Il)-thiol complexes with molecular oxygen and model lipid hydroperoxides was investigated by electron spin resonance (ESR) utilizing 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) as a spin trap. Incubation of nickel (II) [Ni(II)) with cysteine in an aerobic environment generated hydroxyl (·OH) radical, which then reacted with cysteine to generate a carbon-centered alkyl ( · R) radical. Radical generation was inhibited under a nitrogen atmosphere. Model lipid hydroperoxides, cumene hydroperoxide, and I-butyl hydroperoxide enhanced the yield of these radicals and also generated an alkoxyl (·OR) radical. Radical yield decreased by approximately half under a nitrogen atmosphere. Although histidine did not cause radical formation in the reaction between Ni(II) and cumene hydroperoxide under aerobic conditions, the addition of histidine to a mixture containing Ni(ll), cysteine, and cumene hydroperoxide under the same experimental conditions increased the yield of · R radical but lowered the yield of ·OR and ·OH radical adducts. It thus appears that histidine caused the ·OH attack to be more site-specific. Similar results were obtained utilizing 1-butyl hydroperoxide. Penicillamine or N-acetylcysteine yielded similar results except that under aerobic conditions, reaction between Ni(ll) and N-acetylcysteine without hydroperoxide did not generate a significant concentration of free radicals. Under the same experimental conditions, cystine did not generate any detectable free radicals, suggesting an important role of the -SH group in Ni(II)-mediated free radical generation. The results indicate that free radical generation from the reaction of Ni(Il)-thiol complexes and molecular oxygen, and/or lipid hydroperoxides, may play an important role in the mechanism(s) of Ni(II) toxicity and carcinogenesis. INTRODUCTIONWhile nickel is a well-recognized carcinogen [l, 2]. the underlying biochemical mechanisms remain unclear (3, 4). Recent studies suggest that these mechanisms may involve oxidative DNA damage through free radicals, especially the hydroxyl (•OH) radical [5-13]. The mechanisms of nickel carcinogenicity and toxicity may also involve lipid peroxidation [14-21]. Unlike ferrous ion [Fe(II)], the Ni(II) cation itself does not directly react with 02, H2O2, or lipid hydroperoxides to generate free radicals [12, 21]. However, it has been reported that Ni(II) complexes with certain synthetic oligopeptides, e.g., tetraglycine or glycylglycylhistidine, make Ni(II) reactive with 02. This reaction results in transitory formation of Ni(III) and degradation of the organic ligand via free radical reactions [22]. Such Ni(II)-peptide complexes are also capable of reacting with H2O2 to produce oxygen free radicals [11, 12]. Although the cellular environ¬ment may not contain these particular peptide ligands that are known to render Ni(II) redox active in vitro, it does contain a variety of oligopeptides that are capable of forming Ni(II) complexes at physiological pH, and thus may facilitate Ni(II) redox activity in vivo. These oligopeptides include glutathione (y-L glutamylycysteinylglycine), carnosine (homocarnosine (y aminobutyryl-L-histidine), and anserine ( B-alany1-3-methyl-L-histidine)."

Nov 1, 1995

By Terrence J. Stobbe

The authors investigated the nature, cause and treatment of 234 back injuries which occurred in 156 different situations in underground coal mines. A detailed interview was conducted with each injured miner as 137 variables were explored to provide a complete picture of the injury scenario. The miners worked at 23 mines in six states. An important finding of the study was that sudden movement, which occurred in 527 of the injuries, is a more frequent factor than heavy lifting in causing hack injuries. Along with sudden movement, other major injury causing factors were equipment seat design, lifting, cable handling, and slips/trips. No significant differences were found between the injury scenarios associated with lost time and non-lost time injuries; thus, both sets of scenarios should he used in doe loping back injury control strategies. Medical treatment and rehabilitation varied in content and quality. Dialogue between the medical, rehabilitation and mining communities is needed to develop an effective treatment strategy. Back injury control related training was found to be inadequate in most mines. Mine specific training for physical stress recognition and potential sudden torte release should he added to the training currently given. Based on the information collected in this study, recommendations were made regarding equipment design, mechanical assists and procedures for material handling, training, etc., which, if implemented, will assist in reducing the frequency of back injuries in underground coal mining.

Jan 1, 1989

By Walter R. Storms

"The New Mexico potash exploration described herein was begun in February- 1944 by the Federal Bureau of Mines with the object of determining the amount of potash ore in the United States Potash Reserve in Eddy County, N. Mex., by exploring the deposit from the surface with vertical drill holes. The work was completed in October of the same year after 16 holes had been drilled on the reserve and in the immediate vicinity.The Potash Reserve is located in secs. 26, 27, 34, and 35, T. 20 S., R. 29 E., Eddy County, N. Mex., about 14 miles northeast of the city of Carlsbad. Drilling was done in secs. 26 and 35 of the reserve, in sec. 14 to the north, and secs. 25 and 36 to the east. All work was done on Government-owned, unleased land.The reserve may be reached from Carlsbad by traveling northeast by automobile for about 14 miles on paved U. S. Highway 62. This highway passes through the southern part of the reserve. Other parts may be reached by a State highway which passes along the eastern side of the area, then by poor dirt roads to various drilling sites. A branch of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad also passes across the southern part of the reserve en route from Carlsbad to the plant and mine of the Potash Co. of America, a few miles northeast of the Project and 22 miles from Carlsbad.Work on the project was greatly facilitated by the help of Ralph H. King, associate geologist, R. K. Bailey, geochemist, H. C. Spicer, geophysicist, Hope Bunker, junior geologist, and R. H Allport, district mining supervisor, all of the Federal Geological Survey; and Charles H. Johnson, who at that time was district engineer for New Mexico for the Mining Branch of the Bureau of Mines."

Apr 1, 1946

By Bruce Cantrell, K. L. Rubow

"INTRODOCTIONMeasurement of the contribution of diesel exhaust to respirable aerosol in mine environments has become increasingly important because of current concerns over the occupational health effects resulting from exposure to diesel emissions. In response to this, the U.S. Bureau of Mines is developing and evaluating new sampling methods for measuring diesel aerosol in underground mines. Two such techniques are being studied by the Bureau, size selective sampling and Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) modeling. These techniques use measurable physical or chemical characteristics of a mine aerosol sample to infer the amount of diesel particulate material contained in the sample.Size selective sampling is being adapted for measurement of diesel aerosol by the Particle Technology Laboratory (PTL) of the University of Minnesota under sponsorship by the Bureau. 1 It is based on the premise that diesel and mineral dust aerosol can be physically separated by size and collected during sampling using inertial impaction. An independent effort by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to develop a size selective sampling technique was also sponsored by the Bureau.The second technique, CMB modeling, is being developed by the Bureau as an alternative measurement technique to referee the results obtained using size selective sampling.3 It compares measured trace element ""finger prints"" of aerosol sources with similar profiles of mine aerosol samples. From these, the portions of the sample contributed by each source can be determined. Results of these investigations in underground coal mines have confirmed that diesel and coal dust aerosol are of different size and can be measured separately using size selective sampling techniques.A major difference in diesel usage among underground mines is the requirement for exhaust gas cooling systems in coal and gassy noncoal mines. Nongassy mines usually employ limited exhaust conditioning in the form of catalytic converters, which have limited effect on primary exhaust particulate. The cooling system in most general use in gassy mines is the water scrubber. This device has little effect on most of the gases but removes particulate material from the exhaust. 5 Because of this, exhaust aerosol characteristics in nongassy mines are expected to be different. To see if size selective sampling techniques can be used in such mines, the Bureau and the University of Minnesota conducted a second study in three metal and nonmetal mines, two nongassy and one rated as gassy."

Jan 1, 1990

By Verne E. Hooker

In situ stresses, based on isotropic and anisotropic relations, were evaluated using computer techniques from overcoring data obtained in dimension stone quarries along the Appalachian Piedmont, the Ozark Uplift, and the Ouachita Tectonic Belt. Stresses in the horizontal plane near the surface are compressive and range from 100 to 4,500 psi. The direction of maximum compressive stress seems to be alined with the general tectonic structure for most of the determinations. The ratio of the maximum to minimum elastic parameters in the horizontal plane ranges from 1.05 to 2.46 for these competent rocks. Isotropic versus anisotropic stress determinations show differences only as great as 25 percent in stress magnitude and 25° in orientation.

Jan 1, 1969

By Jon K. Ahlness

The Bureau of Mines conducted laboratory and field experiments to determine tne amount of permeability reduction in uranium sandstone after its exposure to different drilling fluids. Seven polymer and two bentonite fluids were laboratory-tested in their clean condition, and six polymer fluids were tested with simulated drill cuttings added. Sandstone cores cut from samples collected at an open pit uranium mine were the test medium. The clean fluid that resulted in the least permeability reduction was an hydroxyethyl cellulose polymer fluid. The greatest permeability reduction of the clean polymers came from a shale-inhibiting synthetic polymer. Six polymer fluids were tested with simu-lated drill cuttings added to represent field use. The least permeability reduction was obtained from a multipolymer blend fluid. A field experiment was performed to compare how two polymer fluids affect formation permeability when used for drilling in situ uranium leaching wells. For this test, the polymer fluid with the best laboratory results (multipolymer blend) was compared with a commonly used polymer fluid (guar gum) that gave poorer laboratory results. When fluid injection rates for the four wells drilled with the guar gum were compared with those for the four drilled with the multipolymer blend, no statistically significant difference was found.

Jan 1, 1984

By J. E. Cleveland

The major health concern for uranium miners is the release of radon gas and the resultant ingrowth of the short lived daughters in the mine atmosphere. Present methods of control are the utilization of mine ventilation systems for dilution and control of ingrowth time to maintain working levels below those set by regulations. This study examined pressure cycling efforts on the radon emanation. The mechanical ventilation systems were altered to allow pressure changes throughout the mine to increase radon influx during the off shifts and thus deplete the sources of radon gas. Continuous radon working level and environmental monitors, developed by the Bureau of Mines, were employed to monitor radiation and physical parameters in the mine workings. The mine ventilation system was then varied to induce radon flows during off shifts, thus, depleting the radon sources during normal production shifts. Electro-static precipitators were also tested to determine radon daughter collection efficiencies. Both radon and radon daughter concentrations were monitored and evaluated. Major problems were found in the simple mechanical operation of cleaning these units.

Jan 1, 1982

By G. H. Damon

Since 1963, Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8179 has served the mining industry as a fundamental safety guide in the field of blasting agents. In the intervening 14 years, many changes have occurred, and this report presents revised and new recommendations which recognize these changes. For example, AN-FO is now supplied mostly premixed, whereas in 1963 much of it was mixed by the blaster; aluminum metal (A1) and other fuels are now often added to AN-FO to increase strength, and flake aluminum powder is used as a sensitizer in water gels; and water gels or slurries that are now extensively used were just coming into practical use in 1963. To provide the widest possible margin of safety, some of the Bureau's recommendations are more stringent than existing regulations,

Jan 1, 1977

By J. S. Kennedy, M. M. Fine

"INTRODUCTION Barite is one of the major industrial minerals whose production has increased considerably in the last 10 years. In 1935 domestic production of barite was 218,075 tons and. had increased by 1944 to 515,136 tons. 3/ Most of the primary uses for barite and barite products were developed before 1935, so the increase in barite production reflects the growth of industry in general rather than any recent developments in barite technology.The principal uses for ground and crushed barrite are as a weighting agent in heavy drilling fluids, as a filler in rubber and other materials, as a pigment and extender in paints, and as a flux in glass melt. In addition, a considerable' quantity of barite serves as the raw material for the manufacture of lithopone and barium chemicals.Specifications for barrite vary widely and depend primarily on the use to which the material is put. The primary requisites for barite used in heavy drilling muds -are that it have a minimum specific gravity of 4.2 and be very,low in soluble salts. A minimun barium sulfate content of 92 percent may be specified; but this is less important than the gravity. 4/ In addition before consumption the material must be ground to '92 percent minus 325-mesh. 5/ Lithopone and chemical manufacturers require a minimum of 94 Percent barium sulfate, a maximum of 1.0 percent iron oxide, and not more than a trace of fluorine. 6/ Barite used as fillers in light-colored products should be of fairly high grade, but the filler used in dark products may be considerably lower grade.Glass barite should contain a minimum of 96 percent barium sulfate, not more than 3 percent moisture, a maxium of 0.2 to 0.4 percent iron oxide, and not more than a trace of titanium oxide. Particle size is a matter of some importance in glass barite, also. 7/"

May 1, 1948

By Lester M. Adams

In 1980, the Bureau of Mines surveyed a group of mine seals in Randolph County, WV, to evaluate their effectiveness for reducing toxic pollutants in mine water discharges. The survey focused on 11 block wet mine seals, but mine seals of several other types were also examined. The seals were installed in 1966 and 1967 in abandoned drift portals by the Federal Water Quality Administration (FWQA), a predecessor of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in cooperation with the Bureau of Mines and other Federal and State agencies, in a project known as Elkins Mine Drainage Pollution Control Demonstration Project. The seals were designed to prevent air from entering the mine portals while allowing mine water to flow out. It was believed that by preventing air from entering inactive or abandoned mines, the formation of toxic pollutants and acid mine drainage (AMD) could be reduced. Evaluation of the seals was based on water flow measurements, water analyses, and visual observations. The Bureau's 1980 data were compared with past data collected by the EPA. Several leaks and failures were observed in the clay seals, as evidenced by apparent blowouts and the absence of vegetation where the mine water surfaced. Analyses of the 1980 data indicated some improvement in the quality of water discharged from many of the wet air seals.

Jan 1, 1984

By John T. Dieckmann

This report documents the work performed and the results obtained in a 2-year development of a Mobile Inert Gas Generator for use in the Bureau of Mines Remote Sealing System for fighting underground coal mine fires. The performance requirements of an inert gas generating system for the Remote Sealing System were clearly established. A thorough review of seven possible system designs meeting these requirements was conducted. An air cooled, distillate oil fired combustion type inert gas generator was selected for further detailed design, hardware fabrication, and performance testing. The Inert Gas Generator constructed under this program has been thoroughly performance tested and has been operated in the field for approximately 200 hours. The system has met or exceeded all important performance requirements. The system was used in the fire fighting efforts at the Bethlehem Mines Corporation Cambria Division Mine 33 fire and contributed to the successful containment of the fire. The system was also employed in the demonstration of entire Remote Mine Sealing System at the Jenney Mine in the fall of 1978. The system is currently avail-able for fighting any future underground coal mine fires.

Jan 1, 1979