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By Zhucheng Huang, Zhikai Liang, Lingyun Yi, Tao Jiang

"In this study, reduction of iron ore pellets was carried out at 800-950°C by simulating the atmosphere of typical coal gasification gas. The effects of temperature, gas composition and reduction degree on swelling were investigated respectively. Reduction degree was obtained according to the weight loss records. And volume changes of pellets during reduction were evaluated by infrared photography. Results showed that the pellet swelling increased with temperature and decreased slightly with hydrogen content in the reducing gas. The swelling peaked when reduction degree reached about 40% and then decreased to be stable finally. The microstructures of pellets during reduction were examined by reflected light microscope and relatively rational explanations were proposed for their swelling behaviors.PrefaceDirect reduction iron is an important and indispensable raw material for high-purified and high-quality steel in the electric furnace smelting. Gas-based shaft furnace direct reduction process has very strong competitative ability; however, this technique requires natural gas as reducing agent, so its development has been restricted by gas source and area. Compared with gas-based reduction method, coal based reduction method has the disadvantages of higher production cost and lower productivity. In China, coal resources are abundant and coal gasification technology is mature, and the development of coal gasification shaft furnace direct reduction process is promising. [1] The gasification methods of fixed bed method (Lurgi method), fluidized bed method (Undok method), airflow bed method (Texaco coal water slurry method and Shell dry powder coal method) have been put into use successfully. These syngas generated by different methods can meet the actual production requirement of shaft furnace. However, the compositions of the effective reduction gas in the syngas are quite different. The ratios of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (H2/CO) of Undok or Shell coal gas, Texaco coal gas and Lurgi coal gas are 0.4, 0.6~ 1.0 and 1.6~2.3, respectively. [2] In the coal gas direct reduction process, the swelling behavior of iron ore pellets is various due to the differences of the gas composition, reduction temperature and reduction degree, and it seriously affects the normal operation ofDRI production. [3-9] Therefore, the research on the swelling behavior and its mechanism of iron ore pellets in direct reduction were carried out in this paper."

Jan 1, 2013

By Alexandre Bonan

This paper reports the results of a kinetic study on the oxidation of free cyanide and Cu-cyanide complex ions with HO,. The variables and respective ranges studied were the following: [CN] total =10 - 500 mg/l; pH=10-11; (H2O2/CN) mole ratio = 1- 3; (Cu/CN) mole ratio = 0.10 - 0.25. The results were interpreted by a semi-empirical model that incorporates the useful oxidation reactions and the parallel alkaline decomposition of H2O2

Jan 1, 1994

By Guo Xueyi

The electrochemical couple behavior of manganese dioxide with ferrous/ferric ions in acidic chloride medium was investigated, It was proven that the dissolution of Mn01 is due to the electrochemical couple reaction between MnO2/Mn2+ and Fe2+/lFe3+ in the solution, The driving force for the process originates from the rest potential difference of the two couples. The reduction of Mn02 is controlled by clectrochemical kinetics, whereas the conversion of F e2+ to Fe3+ is limited by diffusion, The factors such as the Mn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cl concentration, pH of the solution and the temperature, have much influence on the kinetics of the couple process, This study will be useful to elucidate the mechanism for the leaching of manganese nodule from the deep ocean as well as manganese dioxide ores in land,

Jan 1, 2003

By L. J. Davies

Refractories usage in furnaces for the extraction of nickel from both sulphides and lateritic ores is reviewed. Recent changes in raw materials and basic brick qualities developed to meet the increasing demands of existing and new processes are outlined. Examples of used brick examinations to establish mechanisms of wear are given. The importance of physical and chemical properties are discussed. The use of simulative laboratory testing to aid in refractories development and selection is described.

Jan 1, 1988

By Jianhui Wu, Jing Zhan, Chuanfu Zhang, Zhijian Wang, Chu-ping Xia

"A novel technology about interactive roast of complex bismuth sulfide ore with low grade and Pyrolusite was put forward using the low-grade bismuth sulfide ore and pyrolusite as raw materials. The predominance diagram of Bi-Mn-S-O system was drawn by thermodynamic calculations. Stable coexistence area ofBizO3 and MnSO4 and its control condition was obtained. The interactive roast conditions including roasting temperature, roasting time, the ratio of n(MnO2)/n(S), ventilation rate and so on are investigated systematically. The results show that the sulfur-retained ratio reaches about 98%, in which formation rate of MnSO4 was 94.04%, most of the residual sulfur in the ore exist in the form of BhsO32(SO4)10 in the roasting products The optimum roasting conditions were as follows: roasting temperature of 650°C, roasting time of2h, 1.4 for n(MnO2)/n(S) and 140L/h for ventilation rate.IntroductionBismuth is a ""green"" rare metal with the characteristics of safe, nontoxic and low melting point[l].The use of bismuth and its oxides is extending from traditional fields such as pigment, fusible alloy, bismuth class of drugs and metallurgical additives to the high-tech fields such as semiconductor, high-temperature superconducting materials and nuclear power and so on. Bismuth is one of the precious advantageous resources in China which owns the most abundant bismuth resources in the world. Bismuth metallurgical process is divided into the pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy [2-4]. Hydrometallurgy for bismuth is mainly used for the processing oflow-grade complex bismuth ore, whose key steps are oxidative leaching process of the bismuth sulfide ore by strong oxidants(FeCb, Clz, HNO2 etc) in hydrochloric acid system. Therefore, the corrosion of strong oxidants, high demand for equipments and poor operating environment are its inherent disadvantages. Pyrometallurgy for bismuth is mainly used for the processing of high-grade bismuth raw materials or concentrate, which is the main method for bismuth metallurgy at present."

Jan 1, 2013

By Maija-Leena Metsiirinta

The behaviour of copper and lead in zinc roasting has been studied in laboratory scale roasting experiments as well as in large scale trials in an industrial fluidized bed, with the background of Outokumpu Kokkola Zinc smelter. Commercial zinc concentrates with a low and high ( up to 3 wt % ) copper content and with a low and high ( up to 3.5 wt % ) lead content were oxidized to various desulphurisation degrees in the fluidized bed to establish the reaction mechanisms and the paths for copper and lead oxidation in the roasting. Influences of the agglomerate size on the roasting kinetics and micro- scale phenomena were also determined. Optical microscopy was used on the calcine and the findings are presented as numerous photographs of the polished cross sections. SEM/EDS techniques were used for analyzing chemically the phases and particle morphologies present in the samples. Computational thermodynamics was applied to the complex phase equilibria occurring during roasting in the agglomerating calcine. A complete oxidation of zinc concentrate with a high copper and lead content requires a careful control of oxygen coefficient in the roasting in order to maintain a stable operation of the fluidized bed. Oxygen coefficient thus seems to have a significant impact on the hydrodynamic stability of the fluidized bed with fine raw materials.

Jan 1, 2003

By Djona M. Gaballah I.

Selective chlorination of unroasted and roasted spent hydrorefming catalysts was studied between 300 and 600°C using the following gas mixtures : C12+CO, C12+N2 and CI2+air. Such materials contain Co, Ni and Mo compounds supported by alumina and/ or silica. They also contain variable amounts of V compounds, C, S, etc., accumulated during the life time of the catalyst. Direct oxychlorination of the C+S rich sample allows higher extraction rates than those obtained by the carbochlorination of the same roasted one. It seems that the roasting step doesn't favor the economic metals' recovery. Results of the chlorination of C+S poor spent catalysts, in the presence of CO, in the chlorinating gas mixture, or of carbon added to the sample, were comparable. Cobalt and nickel chlorides were .extracted from the chlorination residues by their dissolution with acidified water, whereas molybdenum and vanadium chlorinated compounds were recovered by selective condensation from the vapor phase. The recovery rates of valuable metals as well as the selectivity were higher for the chlorination of spent catalysts than results obtained by the hydrometallurgical processing of the same sample. Results of the scale-up of the oxychlorination of the unroasted sample confirmed those of the laboratory scale. The global recovery rates were about 88 pct of cobalt, 93 pct of molybdenum and 76 pct of vanadium. The carbochlorination was applied to the recovery of W and Ti from Denox catalyst that is a carbon and sulfur free one. Recovery rates higher than 99 pct at temperatures lower than 500 °C could be obtained. This may indicate that the chlorination process can be applied to the treatment of various industrial wastes or by-product containing transition and/or refractory metal compounds A flow - sheet for the pretreatment of these materials is proposed.

Jan 1, 1995

By Ryosuke O. Suzuki

A new cell concept for calciothermic reduction is proposed in which the titanium dioxide instead of TiCl4 is used as the raw material for reduction, Metallic calcium is needed as the reductant of a thermochemicaily stable oxide, such as TiO2. CaCl2, is selected as the solvent of Ca and simultaneously as the solvent of CaO. The reduction system consists of a single cell where both the reduction reaction and the electrolytic reaction for recovery of reducing agent coexist in the same molten CaCl2 bath. A few mol%Ca dissolves in the melt and gives the media a strong reducing power. Sufficiently deoxidized metallic titanium deposits and forms a slightly sintered granular sponge. Both mechanisms of the halide flux deoxidation and the electrochemical deoxidation work efficiently for these fine precipitates, The reducing agent is in situ recovered by electrolysis of CaO because the molten CaCl2 he a relatively large solubility for CaO Some cell designs and modifications are proposed for industrial applications.

Jan 1, 2003

By Hongli Wen, Guangkun Shen, Qiong Deng, Xuling Chen, Min Gan, Xiaohui Fan

"In this research, pyrite cinder which contains 53.51% Fe and 0.54% Pb was processed by magnetic roasting separation to obtain a concentrate with 64.62% Fe and 0.56% Pb. The concentrate was then leached with hydrochloric acid to remove lead. Several technological parameters which may influence the removal efficiency were investigated: the mass fraction of hydrochloric acid, pulp density, the leaching time and temperature. On the conditions that the mass fraction of hydrochloric acid of 5%, pulp density of 30%, the leaching time of 30 minutes and leaching temperature of20°C, the lead content in the concentrate was reduced to 0.19%. The product was suitable for agglomeration and pelletization. Through the analysis of the lead distribution and phase change during the whole process, the mechanism of lead separation from pyrite cinder was analyzed.IntroductionPyrite cinder is rich in iron, which defines its most extensive and effective use as raw materials for iron making. However, some pyrite cinders contain much non-ferrous metals, which is detrimental for the iron making process. Lead, one of the harmful elements, will destroy the blast furnace lining. Besides, it causes pollution of the environment[1]. Therefore it is necessary to remove excessive lead before entering the blast furnace. To separate the lead from pyrite cinder, much research was done, including flotation, high temperature evaporation and leaching. High temperature evaporation consumed too much energy. The flotation was difficult to obtain high- grade iron ore concentrate[2]. Majority of the leaching was direct leaching of pyrite cinder, which was also difficult to get high-grade iron ore concentrate[3]. This article explored the magnetic roasting method to get high-grade iron ore concentrate, acid leaching method of the concentrate to remove excessive lead, providing guidance for the efficient utilization of pyrite cinder."

Jan 1, 2013

By Wenxian Zhu, Patrick R. Taylor

"The small dimensions of nano-sized materials leads to novel and enhanced mechanical and physical properties. A thermal plasma reactor has been developed to study the formation of nanometer sized metal powders. A supersonic nozzle and a powder filter were designed and built. By vaporizing coarse metal powders in the plasma flame, and quenching the metal vapors through the nozzle at the rate of 107 K/sec, nanometric sized powders have been produced. The powders were collected in an airtight secondary quench-filter system. The particle size of the product power is 5 -20 nanometers, obtained through TEM analysis. The XRD analysis showed that the powder did not oxidize after the filter was handled in an inert atmosphere glove box.IntroductionNanostructured materials have been shown to exhibit improved physical and mechanical properties compared to conventional materials with larger grain sizes (1,2). There have been several methods proposed for preparing nanometer size materials. Thermally induced vapor-phase reactions have been used to produce a variety of powders. A common feature of these processes is the rapid production and cooling of condensable reaction intermediates and products, by gas-phase reactions, leading to the formation of a large number of very small particles. Thermal plasma synthesis of ultra-fine size particles has been attracting increasing interest (3,4,9-11), because it offers many advantages, especially in refractory materials processing, compared to conventional processes: (a) thermal plasma temperatures are very high(> 5000 K); (b) the rates of chemical reaction are much faster than those encountered in conventional processes; (c) high-purity materials may be obtained using fewer processing steps by collecting the product at temperatures where the by-products are in the vapor phase; ( d) the mean particle diameter can be controlled; (e) unifom sized particles may be produced with clean surfaces (these particles are particularly suitable for pressureless sintering); and, (f) high throughput per reactor volume can be achieved. In addition, the process used for generating particles determines the degree of sintering ability of the powders, since the process dictates the morphologies, the purity and its size distribution. In the future, thermal plasma synthesis nanometer size particles may play an important role in vapor phase reaction techniques and might be expected to be one of the first full scale commercial installations in the future."

Jan 1, 1998

By Harovel G. Wheat

It has been shown that the incorporation of fly ash into concrete as a replacement for part of the cement can be beneficial. In some cases, the strength of the concrete can be increased and the permeability can be decreased. This latter property can lead to a reduction in the migration and/or penetration of aggressive species into reinforced concrete. Some of these species, such as chlorides from deicing salts or marine environments, can subsequently result in accelerated corrosion of the steel reinforcement, a loss of the protection provided by the passive film on steel, and a loss of structural integrity of the concrete. Care has to be taken so that the appropriate compositions of the components of the fly ash are utilized in order to ensure maximum benefit to the concrete structures. This will be discussed as it relates to fly ash generation and treatment.

Jan 1, 2002

By José Brant, Douglas Torres, Rogério Navarro, Rodrigo Souza, Eduardo Brocchi

The steelmaking process requires the input of ferro-alloys to implement the adjustment of some elements composition in the final product. In the particular case of stainless steel production, the high carbon FeCr alloy stands out as one important precursor. However in the production of this material a certain quantity of fine powder with remarkable chromium and carbon content is also generated, which, in turn, could be processed through alkaline roasting in order to selectively recovery this element in a subsequent aqueous route. In the present work, this process is investigated, using excess of NaOH as oxidizing agent, and H2O2 for precipitating chromium as Cr(OH)3, which is next calcinated to Cr2O3. According to the results, the global achieved recovery has shown to be around 98%, suggesting that the proposed route can be seen as a potential process for chromium oxide production from the mentioned fine powder.

Jan 1, 2015

By Tim Robinson, Michael S. Moats, Masatsugu Moritmitsu, Kathryn C. Sole, Lauri Palmu, Frank K. Crundwell

"Process technology and design trends for copper, zinc, and nickel electrowinning cellhouses include focusing on energy reduction, productivity, and acid mist abatement. Larger electrodes, longer cells, automation, and higher current densities are leading to more capital-effective designs. The latest cellhouse designs include installation of automated electrode-handling systems, thereby removing more operators from the cellhouse. These technology and design trends result in lower electrowinning operating costs and improved purity of electro won cathode.INTRODUCTIONTechnology transfer between similar industries is an important process in improving product quality and productivity, and reducing operating costs. The electrowinning (EW) recovery of base metals, such as zinc, copper and nickel, is no different. The zinc industry with its larger EW product-handling requirements as compared to nickel and copper, has been driven to automation technology and the use of larger equipment. This technology has been transferred to copper. Nickel has led development and application in large-scale anode and divided-cell technologies but, due to nickel being produced in multiple forms (not just cathode) and being a small part of the whole complex nickel process route, the quantities of electrowon nickel are small compared to copper and zinc. Copper process technology in acid mist abatement was recently transferred to nickel. The focus in copper EW has been on energy reduction and productivity."

Jan 1, 2012

By Robert Vidal

The performance of a laboratory-scale cell for the electrolysis of an aqueous chrome alum solution was studied. Electrode potentials, pH, and Eh were recorded. An optimum catholyte pH of about 2.5, consistent with information from the literature was observed. Values exceeding this range resulted in a precipitate formation and are detected by wavering cathode potentials. The role of anodically produced dichromate ions was investigated by chemical analysis. It was found that the steady state concentration of dichromate ions varies inversely with fluid flow from catholyte to anolyte. This concentration was also reduced with the use of precious metal coated titanium anodes.

Jan 1, 1994

By Michele L. Bustamante, Gabrielle Gaustad

In recent years, t h e future supply of tellurium has been called into question due to the anticipated rapidly increasing demand from thin film cadmium telluride photovoltaics. Since tellurium is produced as a byproduct of other extractive processes – principally, the electrolytic refining of primary copper sulfide ore – it is important to explore the dynamics of the parent metal extraction and processing – in this case copper – when attempting to answer this question. This research explores the changing landscape of global copper production; introducing system diagramming and the concept of byproduct intensity (BPI) to illustrate concerning downward trends in tellurium supply potential. Upon closer inspection, it is concluding that, while a likely contributor to these downward trends, the increased use of non- traditional copper production techniques alone are not responsible; other factors include market substitution and incomplete data reporting. Additionally, a review of literature on tellurium recovery processing reveals a promising outlook for future supplies; highlighting potential for improvements in yield, which allow producers to make better use of what is available, even in the face of suppressed BPI.

Jan 1, 2014

By Maija-Leena Metsärinta

The behaviour of copper and lead in zinc roasting has been studied in laboratory scale roasting experiments as well as in large scale trials in an industrial fluidized bed, with the background of Outokumpu Kokkola Zinc smelter. Commercial zinc concentrates with a low and high ( up to 3 wt % ) copper content and with a low and high (up to 3.5 wt % ) lead content were oxidized to various desulphurisation degrees in the fluidized bed to establish the reaction mechanisms and the paths for copper and lead oxidation in the roasting. Influences of the agglomerate size on the roasting kinetics and micro-scale phenomena were also determined. Optical microscopy was used on the calcine and the findings are presented as numerous photographs of the polished cross sections. SEMIEDS techniques were used for analyzing chemically the phases and particle morphologies present in the samples. Computational thermodynamics was applied to the complex phase equilibria occurring during roasting in the agglomerating calcine. A complete oxidation of zinc concentrate with a high copper and lead content requires a careful control of oxygen coefficient in the roasting in order to maintain a stable operation of the fluidized bed. Oxygen coefficient thus seems to have a significant impact on the hydrodynamic stability of the fluidized bed with fine raw materials.

Jan 1, 2003

By Zhang Yongzhu

Developments on bioleaching of low grade ores and refractory gold ores by T. Ferrooxidans in China are summarized. Effect of the ions on bacterial growth, bioelectrochemical reaction mechanism of sulfide minerals and bacterial reaction mechanism are also discussed.

Jan 1, 1992

By Hu Meilong, Liu Lu, Bai Chenguang

Extracting perovskite from high titanium-bearing blast furnace (BF) slag is a green and potential method to recover the second titanium resource. The non-isothermal crystallization process of perovskite in synthesized high titanium-bearing slag was studied in situ by confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) with cooling rate of 20 K/min. The results showed that perovskite was the primary phase formed during cooling process in the titanium-bearing synthesized slag (TiO2=23%). Perovskite started to precipitate at 1719 K and finally presented an orthogonal straight lines morphology.

Jan 1, 2014

By Pekka Taskinen

The converter-less nickel matte smelting technology (DON) adopted more than 20 years ago in Boliden Harjavalta smelter has been since that applied successfully to the processing of large number of nickel sulphide concentrates of various Ni-to-Cu ratios and MgO contents. The operational point of the technology is far from the conventional primary nickel smelting in the smelting-converting route. Therefore, a careful scouting of distribution equilibria of the base and trace elements in the smelting conditions of DON process has been conducted, in order to obtain quantitative information about the equilibria and thermodynamic properties of the nickel mattes at low iron concentrations, less than 10 wt% [Fe] in matte. The series of investigations has included novel experimental and analytical techniques for increasing the reliability and sensitivity of the phase equilibria as well as the element distribution observations carried out in typical high-grade nickel matte smelting conditions.

By R. J. St. Eloi

The Kidd Creek Copper Smelter has been expanded from its original design of 59,000 tonnes of copper per year to over 120,000 tonnes per year .. Modifications to the process gas handling system and acid plant have been made to accommodate this higher production rate and to .generally optimize the operation. The gas handling system associated with the continuous smelting process is discussed in terms of boiler accretions and modifications to minimize their impact on operations; design changes to effect reductions in high pressure drop duct configurations; material changes to overcome corrosion and plant additions to 'improve gas cleaning capability. The acid plant is reviewed with references to changes made to accommodate the increased S02 gas strength resulting from the higher smelting rates;

Jan 1, 1992