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By Jean Goldschmidt

Recycling of fine oxidized particles of non-ferrous metals usually cannot be carried out by pyrometallurgical methods. 'Hydrometallurgy provides an alternative technology to reintroduce? the resulting products as secondary raw materials into the industrial cycle, thereby saving resources and energy while keeping the environment a little cleaner. The paper summarizes the methods employed by Hydrometal to achieve these objectives and? stigmatizes the latest counterproductive international regulations which create ever more obstacles to environmentally sound recycling.

Jan 1, 1995

By Florian Aurelian, Mihai Popescu

"It will be tested four types of “geochemical barriers”. All those mixtures were contacted with mine waters containing uranium, radium and heavy metals. The loading capacity was determined. The optimum mixture was determined and its efficiency was tested within an uranium areal, where the activity was stopped. It was determined the possibility to recover the radioactive elements and the heavy metals from the investigated barriers.IntroductionThe paper presents the results concerning the performances of some “geochemical barriers” used for the decontamination of mine waters from uranium mining sites, which were tested in lab and in situ.ExperimentalThe research activity was carried out in lab and on the site.In the lab a module was constructed in order to follow up the uptake capacity of the “permeable reactive geochemical barriers” used to remove the radiolelements from the contaminated waters originated from the uranium mining industry. The barriers, which were used, are made of cheap natural materials, which can be easily got (wood chips, peat coal, sawdust, iron span, steel and zeolitic tuff). The following types of barriers were tested:•, 1st barrier: peat coal, sawdust, zeolite on weight ratio of 1/1/1;•, 2nd barrier: bentonite, sand, wood chips, peat coal on weight ratio of 1/1/1/1;•, 3rd barrier: iron span, steel, sawdust, peat coal on weight ratio of 2/1/1;•, 4th barrier: iron span, steel, sand, firry wood chips on weight ratio of 1/1/1.Lab researches concerning the uranium uptake capacity of the above described “reactive barriers” pointed out that the 3rd mixture (iron span, steel, sawdust, peat coal on a ratio of 2/1/1) didn’t reach the maximum uranium uptake capacity not even after eleven contact stages (the uptake capacity being of 70.6 mg U/ kg of mixture) and the mixture of peat coal, sawdust and zeolite has an uranium uptake capacity of 26.6 mg U/kg of mixture and becomes saturated after four contact stages.Each one of the components involved in physical-chemical processes of sorption, reduction and precipitation, will determine the diminution of uranium and other metals contents upstream the permeable reactive barrier."

Jan 1, 2008

By W. G. Davenport

Changes in copper extraction from 1960 till today are documented. The top ten changes have been: (a) replacement of reverberatory smelting by high intensity oxygen rich smelting (b) growth of the Outokumpu flash smelting to over 50% of the world's smelting capacity (c) successful development of single furnace coppermaking but only for low slag fall concentrates (d) replacement of the batch Peirce-Smith converter by continuous converting, but only in a few cases (e) increased SO2 capture throughout the industry, mainly-as sulfuric acid (f) development of low initiation temperature `big bight' Cs catalysts for treating the continuous high-SO2 strength gases from continuous smelting/converting (g) complete replacement of reverberatory anode scrap and cathode melting furnaces by the Asarco shaft furnace (h) adoption of stainless steel permanent cathodes and automated stripping technology for electrorefining and electrowinning (i) complete elimination of wire bar casting by continuous bar casting/rod rolling (j) development and adoption of extractants for turning weak impure leach solutions into strong pure electrolytes. It is postulated that the biggest possible change over the next 20 years would be complete replacement of smelting/converting by hydrometallurgical processing. However, this seems unlikely due to copper purity, precious metal recovery, and economic concerns. The increasing value of sulfuric acid to many copper companies gives chalcopyrite smelting/oxide-supergene leaching a nice synergy especially with the energy credits now coming from continuous smelters, and their acid plants.

Jan 1, 1999

By Robert E. (Bob) Brown

Magnesium was discovered by Davy in 1808. The production processes as they exist are not economically competitive with aluminum The electrolytic magnesium process is divided into two steps; one to make the MgCh feed and the other to apply large amounts of electric current to dissociate the feed into magnesium (450 g) and chlorine (1200 g). The production of fuJIy anhydrous, pure cell feed is a major problem Recently, there has been a growth of thermal processes, mainly the Pidgeon silicothermic production process using FeSi to reduce dolomite in horizontal retorts. Pechiney has a large vertical electrical furnace process that also uses FeSi to reduce calcined dolomite in a molten bath containing alumina. Work is proceeding to develop new or modified processes that will greatly improve magnesium production. The present methods and the research and R&D will be reviewed in this paper.

Jan 1, 2001

By James C. Foley

In-situ characterizations of green state part density and sintering state have long been desired in the powder metal community. Recent advances in non-contact electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) technology have enabled in-situ monitoring of acoustic amplitude and velocity as sintering proceeds. Samples were made from elemental powders of Al (99.99%), Al (99.7%), Ag, (99.99%), Cu (99.99%) and Fe (99.9%). The powders were pressed in a uniaxial die and examined with acoustic waves for changes in velocity and amplitude during sintering. The changes in acoustic properties were correlated with mechanical properties. Evolution of a series of reverberating echoes during sintering is shown to provide information on the state of sintering, changes in sintering kinetics as well as having the potential for detection of interior flaws.

Jan 1, 2001

By Victor Zavodinsky, Sergey Rogov

"Pseudo-potential fully relaxed total energy calculations are used to predict a hypothetical Si1-xCxO2 (x<0.5) compound formed from SiO2 ß -cristobalite by substitution of some SiO2 complexes by CO2 molecules. The simulation shows that the Si1-xCxO2 compound can be quasi stable if the CO2 content is less than fifty per cent. It is assumed that six-molecule Si6-nCnO12 (n=3) rings can play a role of nucleuses for formation of the Si1-xCxO2 compound from SiO2 and CO2 molecules. Thus, silicon dioxide can be considered as a possible solid store for gaseous CO2.IntroductionThe problem of increasing of CO2 in the Earth atmosphere is one of the main modern problems of mankind. One of conceivable ways to decrease the harmful value of CO2 is to convert a part of it to solid state. Iota et al. [1] reported a polymeric (quartz-like) phase of CO2 solid synthesized at high pressure (~40 GPa) and at high temperature (~1800 K). Shortly after this experimental work, Serra et al. [2] reported a total energy calculation of several possible phases of CO2 using plane wave pseudo-potential density functional theory. They concluded that there should be a transition from a molecular phase to a phase isostructural to SiO2 -quartz in the range of 35 to 60 GPa. The latest calculations by Dong et al. [3] have shown that the more favored solid CO2 phase is ß -cristobalite. Recently, Kume et al. [4] have demonstrated the polymerization of CO2 even at room temperature at high pressures up to 80 GPa. Transformations of gaseous CO2 to different solid phases were studied recently experimentally and theoretically [5-8]. The main obstacle for using synthesized CO2 solid as a solution for the CO2 problem is its pressure instability. However the SiO2 ß -cristobalite with the same structure is stable.The question is whether a silicon-oxide system in which a part of atoms of silicon is replaced by atoms of carbon will be stable? If the answer is positive, this system can be considered, in our opinion, as a possible store for CO2."

Jan 1, 2009

By Hani Henein, J. Barry Wiskel

"The easy accessibility and power of the PC, as well as the education of our engineering students in the use of these tools, are compelling reasons for developing computer aided instructional (CAI) tools. There are a wide range of areas in the engineering curriculum where students must learn the steps and the process of applying judgement in problem solving. In the typical course instruction, · an instructor introduces theory to students; the application of the theory to solving problems is often demonstrated in the abstract. Students therefore spend a significant amount of time learning how to apply the theory to problem solving. Additional time and effort must then be spent to get students to the point of learning concepts and integrating this knowledge. A number of computer aided packages have therefore been developed for use in several courses in the materials science and engineering curriculum that encompass both calculational and instructional capabilities. This paper presents an overview of some of these packages which include the solution of a non-linear equation, the instruction of binary diffusion couples, an introduction of crystallography, an introduction to heat transfer and the solution of thermodynamic stability diagrams. The context in which these CAI Tutorials were developed and are being used will be discussed. The pitfalls in the development of these packages will also be discussed. The use of the tutorials has important implications on the expectations from an engineering education of both instructor and student.IntroductionTraditionally, it is quite routine to teach engineering students how to use a computer (the PC today for undergraduates) as a tool in performing engineering calculations or in simulating a process or a unit operation. This often takes the form of one course in computer programming, whether it is Fortran, Visual basic or a spreadsheet, and another course in numerical computation. However, the materials and electronic revolution have brought about considerable advances in computer power and speed, and accessibility. Today, the manipulation of digital images, movies, and speech are commonplace on a desktop PC.' Many mathematical models that were executed only on workstations can now be readily handled on a PC. Concurrently, more of our students own a PC even if their curriculum does not require them to purchase one. Today, virtually every university student has been introduced to the PC in either their elementary or high school education. Hence, the increased capabilities and accessibility of the PC and the familiarity of students with this tool make it compelling to explore its use as an educational tool for our engineering students. This is not a traditional role of a computer in our engineering curriculum."

Jan 1, 2000

By Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Mark Jolly, Samantha Jones

"The de-waxing process in investment casting is truly a black art which is carried out in a black hole - the autoclave. The process involves exposing wax, coated by a porous ceramic shell, to steam at a pressure of 10 bar and a temperature of about 180°C. The processes which then occur are truly multi-media and multi-physics. Steam condenses in the porous ceramic, wax melts and flows, the shells expand and sometimes crack. Why the shells crack is one of the most difficult questions asked in the industry.Modelling and validating the de-waxing process is not simple. The IRC at the University of Birmingham is attempting to model this process using Physica+ a code developed in the UK. This paper will present the latest results in this attempt to model one of the casting industries most intractable problems.IntroductionThe de-waxing process using an autoclave involves the following physical phenomena:· Flow of the steam in the autoclave;· Heat transfer from the steam to the wax, possibly through the shell;· Melting and flow of the wax.At the same time, other phenomena may occur, such as the flow of the steam through the shell, the condensation of the steam on the shell surface and on the wax pattern surface, the flow of wax the through the shell, etc ...This shows how complex the de-waxing process is from a physical point of view. The main defect that appears during this process is the cracking of the shell. Previous modelling work carried out by Snow [1] has shown that it is possible to predict the stress in the shell, making numerous assumptions. In this paper, the modelling to predict the state of stress in the shell that is currently in development at the University of Birmingham is presented together with the presentation ofthe physical phenomena to model and the assumptions used. The parameters that are needed in such models will also be discussed, and some experimental work undertaken at the moment presented."

Jan 1, 2001

By David B. George

Kennecott recently completed an $880 million modernization and expansion of its smelter and refinery to process all concentrates from the Bingham Canyon mine. This is the first application of Kennecott-Outokumpu Flash Converting. Molten material movement by overhead cranes is eliminated and high levels of oxygen enrichment result in very low process gas volumes and exceptionally control of sulfur oxide emissions. All existing in-plant hygiene, safety, and environmental regulations will be met and the smelter is positioned for anticipated more stringent future regulations. Sulfur capture is 99.9 percent resulting in sulfur dioxide emissions less than the 112 kg/hr Air Permit limit, making the smelter the cleanest in the world.

Jan 1, 1996

By Tetsuya Uda

Our recent achievements of rare earth separation technique[1,2] and new process idea for rare earth magnet recycling[3] are reviewed, (1) Binary chloride mixtures of rare earths were separated by a new selective reduction-vacuum distillation process. According to our experimental results, apparent separation factors were 8.1 for the Pr-Nd chloride mixture and 570 for the Nd-Sm chloride mixture. These values are much higher than conventional solvent extraction methods. (2) A study of recycling process of magnet sludge was carried out. The rare earths in the neodymium magnet sludge were extracted by chlorination with FeCI2, An activated carbon was used as a de-oxidation reagent Metallic iron in the sludge was not chlorinated because the iron monochloride is not stable, The extracted rare earth chlorides were easily separated from Fe-alloy and the excess of FeCh by vacuum distillation, 96 % of neodymium and 94 % of dysprosium in the sludge were extraeted into chloride phase, By the vacuum distillation, a mixture of neodymium and dysprosium trichlorides of 99.2 % purity was recovered, On the other hand, the rare earth chlorides can be converted to the corresponding oxides by a pyrohydrolysis reaction accompanied by a formation of HCl gas, The HCI gas can chlorinate metallic iron to FeCh, Therefore, a new recycling process for rare earth magnet waste can be realized as a chlorine circulation type process. During the process, only carbon and water are consumed and there are no toxic pollutants, Moreover, the obtained rare earth oxide can be directly used as raw material in the conventional oxide electrolysis process,

Jan 1, 2003

By S. Seetharaman

In the processing of molten metals, it is extremely important to monitor continuously the concentration levels of various minor elements, In the production of common metals like copper, iron and aluminium electrochemical sensors involving solid, as well as liquid electrolytes are being increasingly used to measure the concentrations of minor elements The present paper deals with the electrochemical principles underlying these measurements and the possible errors involved. One of the major difficulties in the case of the solid electrolytes is to correct for the consequences oldie electronic contribution to the conduction of the electrolyte. The application of the electrochemical sensors for molten metals processing involves designing of these probes to withstand the industrial operating conditions. In this respect, significant achievements have been made with respect to the design of oxygen probes for liquid metals in general and liquid copper in particular. Some of the salient design features are discussed in the paper, The application of auxiliary electrodes for impurities in molten metals like phosphorus in copper and silicon in iron are taken up. The development of oxygen sensors for slags is given special attention. Recent developments&apos; in the field of sensor technology, as applied to metals processing are highlighted.

Jan 1, 1996

By Tatsuzo Kitamura

The tank house of Tamano refinery, that started its operation in January, 1972, was constructed incorporating the application of Periodic Reverse Current (P.R.C.) from the outset of design works. In 1973, the production of electrolytic copper came up to 8,000 mtpm, a sharp increase ds compared with the designed capacity of 7,000 mtpm, and successful operation has been achieved up to the present. P.R.C. has been employed for the purpose of raising productivity level and reducing copper inventories. Since there were various problems in P.R.C. application to such a large sized cathode as 1 m x 1 m, special attentions were paid to the following items: -Development of a unique bus bar to make an electrolytic current to each electrode as uniform as possible. -Improvement of circulating method of electrolyte. -Application of high-performance equipment to realize a uniform spacing between anode and cathode. Owing to these creative technical developments mentioned above, technical level for operation up to 350 amp per sq m of cathode current density has been established. The quality of electrolytic copper, which was a matter of interest, has been proved to be as excellent as those of conventional electrolysis products through a long term supply to the field of SCR and Dip forming where high levels in quality are required.

Jan 1, 1976

By J. Y. Foley

Platinum-group elements (PGE) are preferentially associated with chromian spinels, including high-iron chromite, magnesian-chromian hercynite, and chromian magnetite in clinopyroxene-rich upper stratigraphic portions of the Tonsina ultramafic complex in southern Alaska. Ratios of Pt:Pt+Pd are proportional to chromium content in the associated chromian spinels. The maximum PGE content of geochemical rock samples from Dust Mountain is greater than 20.000 ppb (>0.6 oz/ton) with minor gold values. The maximum PGE content of tabled chromite concentrates is 3.430 ppb (0.1 oz/ton) at Dust Mountain. 1.029 ppb (0.03 oz/ton) at Sheep Hill, and 1,749 ppb (0.051 oz/ton) at Bernard Mountain. High-iron chromite at Dust Mountain yields tabled chromite concentrates with Cr:Fe ratios between 0.5 and 1.2. Lower PGE contents are found in more chromium-rich chromitites from Sheep Hill and Bernard Mountain that yield concentrates with Cr:Fe ratios between 1.0 and 2.8. Platinum-group minerals include amalgams. arsenides. PGE alloys, and sulfides. These minerals are between 3 and 40 microns in size and are concentrated along grain boundaries and fractures of metasomatically and hydrothermally altered chromian spinel grains.

Jan 1, 1987

By V. M. Paretsky

Oxygen-flame converting of a solid ground matte containing heavy non-ferrous metals in a wide range of concentrations is one of the perspective trends meeting the demands of modern non-ferrous metallurgy. As. a result, of semicommercial tests on oxygen-flame smelting of nickel matte containing 13,5-17,5% Ni; 0,45-0,65% Co under continuous autogenous conditions a converter matte containing 68 8-75,0% Ni and 0,48-1-,0% Co and ferrite -calcium slag containing 1,4-8,4 Ni and 0,16-0,56 Co were pro¬duced. Nickel recovery in a converter-matte was 76,2%, copper - 58,&apos;2% and cobalt recovery in. a slag was 90%. Slag cleaning in an electric furnace allowed to after-recover nickel and cobalt in an alloy to produce a dumpy slag containing 0,03% Ni and 0,02% Co. The development of modern&apos; ecologically pure energy-saving autogenous technologies of the treatment of sulphide raw materials containing heavy non-ferrous metals makes certain demands of the perfection of a process of converting rich sulphide-metallic intermediate products obtained at autogenous smelting. These-demands were connected first of all with the fact that converting process stages because of process periodicity are more unfavourable from the point of ecology, power intensity and unit stability. Besides, during rich matte treatment the problems connected with heat shortage when using air blast and heat excess-when using top oxygen blast to treat luquid matte a-rise and when enriching air blast by oxygen up to 26% fast erosion of the brickwork of a tuyere zone takes place. The technology of Outokumpu and Kennecott companies-on solid- copper matte converting in a flash smelting furnace using air blast is not universal as its possibilities are limited by certain composition of mattes. Besides, flash smelting to produce highly basic or combined slags requires larger enrichment-of blast by oxygen or extra fuel feed. Naturally a flowsheet with continuous converting of matte of various composition up to white matte production is simple,

Jan 1, 1993

By Tina Maniatis

Applied Biosciences has developed a biological technology for removal of arsenic, nitrate, selenium, and other metals from mining and industrial waste waters.The ABMet® technology was implemented at a closed gold mine site in Canada for removing arsenic from tailings pond water. The system included six bioreactors that began treating water in the spring of 2004. Design criteria incorporated a maximum flow of 567 L/min (150 gallons per minute) and water temperatures ranging from 10°C to 15°C. Influent arsenic concentrations range from 0.5 mg/L to 1.5 mg/L. The ABMet® technology consistently removes arsenic to below detection limits (0.02 mg/L). Data from the full scale system will be presented, as well as regulatory requirements and site specific challenges. Keywords: Arsenic, Sulfate Reduction, Metal Sulfide Precipitate, Biological Water Treatment

Jan 1, 2005

By I. Peerawattuk

Growing demand for Li-based battery technologies is leading to an unprecedented growth in the lithium industry. Although innovation in battery technologies has pushed lithium into the spotlight, lithium was not always known for its application in batteries. The primary use of lithium—prior to the introduction of commercial lithium-ion batteries in the early 2000s—was in the ceramics, glass, grease, and the medical industry. Before being converted into usable forms, lithium products must be upgraded from the raw material. Processes for recovering lithium may involve: thermal treatment, water leaching, solar evaporation, ion exchange, carbonation, and electrodialysis. Presented, is a historical review of lithium applications and the different techniques of converting lithium-rich minerals and brines into usable products with additional discussion on future lithium extraction processes.

By Chu Yong Cheng

Manganese is one of the main impurities in the recovery of base metals from their ores. This is especially true when laterite ores are processed using the pressure acid leach (PAL) process. The use of intermediate precipitation, solids/liquid separation and re-leach in the three Western Australian nickel laterite plants to separate nickel and cobalt from manganese and other impurities makes these processes complicated and costly in capital and operation. The research work carried out by the solvent extraction (SX) group at the A J Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy (CSIRO Minerals) has led to the development of direct solvent extraction processes to separate nickel and cobalt from manganese and other impurities. The simplicity of the process flowsheets and the expected savings in capital and operating costs are the major advantages of the new direct solvent extraction processes over the existing processes. By using a new synergistic organic system, Versatic 10 / dccyl-4-pyridinccarboxylatc ester, with a pilot plant leach solution from BHP¬Billiton (after iron precipitation), the metal values (Ni and Co) together with zinc and copper were separated from manganese and other major impurities (Mg, Ca and Cl) in the first SX circuit. The co-extracted manganese, magnesium and calcium were easily scrubbed out. The extraction and stripping kinetics of the metals with the new synergistic organic system were very fast and the synergistic system was found to be chemically stable. pH-extraction isotherms of metals with D2EHPA showed that the extraction order as a function of pH50 was Zn2+ > Ca2+ > Mn2+ > Cu2+ > Co2+> Ni2+> Mg2+. Semi-continuous test work with a cobalt pilot plant leach solution from Peko Rehabilitation Project Pty Ltd and a synthetic solution to simulate a concentrated laterite leach solution from BHP-Billiton showed that manganese, together with calcium, copper and zinc can be separated from nickel, cobalt and magnesium. This led to the development of another direct solvent extraction process to separate manganese and other impurities from nickel and cobalt and to recover nickel and cobalt from leach solutions. A project was initiated by HiTec Energy Ltd to recover manganese from waste laterite leach solutions using SX technology and to further purify it to produce high purity electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD) for the high quality alkaline battery industry. Batch tests were conducted to select a suitable organic system for the extraction of manganese in terms of selectivity and extraction and stripping kinetics. A total of eight organic systems were tested using waste laterite processing solutions. A Versatie 10 / synergist system showed very promising results. By using the synergistic system, high manganese recovery would be obtained, fewer SX stages would be required and a higher A:O ratio could be used in extraction, resulting in a smaller organic inventory and lower capital costs. The risk of gypsum formation is also minimised with the synergistic system. Keywords: Solvent Extraction, Manganese, Laterite, Synergist

Jan 1, 2004

By Jean-François Boulanger

The production of rare earth elements from ore usually consists of three steps; the separation of a concentrate of REE bearing minerals; the cracking of the REE minerals to liberate the REE into an aqueous solution and separation of REE into individual elements. This paper describes the results of laboratory tests conducted on a carbonate-rich REE ore containing bastnaesite and monazite. The tests cover the whole processing sequence of beneficiation, preparation of the REE solution using a caustic leach followed by acid leach to break monazite and bastnaesite and liberate REE into an aqueous solution and the partial separation of the REE using solvent extraction. Details on the product quality and process performances (recovery and impurities removal) are given for each studied step. The paper also discusses the economic advantage of separating the REE rather than producing a mixed REO product to be sold to a refinery for REE separation. A mini-pilot plant version of the process is currently planned.

By Liyuan Chai, Qin Liu, Bing Peng, Jia Wang, Qiang Zhang

"Electrolytic Manganese Residue (EMR) was used as the main material to prepare cementing material activator for the utilization of the residue from electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD) or electrolytic metallic manganese (EMM) production. The effects of chemical activation, thermal activation and mechanical activation on retarding activity and excitation activity of EMR were investigated according to the setting time and activity index of EMR-slag cementing material. The results showed that the EMR exhibited good activating performance after being ball-milled for 18 min and then treated for 1-2 hours at temperature range of 350-450 ?. The optimal properties of cementing material activator were achieved at the weight percent ratio 30 : 3 : 5 of EMR/Ca(OH)2/cement clinker.IntroductionMany hazardous industrial solid wastes such as blast furnace slag, fly ash, steelmaking slag, chromic slag and electrolytic manganese residue [1] are generated n China and their amounts increases every year. The accumulation of the solid wastes during past years is very huge and they could be hardly recycled effectively as a sustainable resource. 2.35 billion tons of industrial solid wastes have been produced up to now [2]. It is estimated that they would exceed 3.3 billion tons by the end of 2015 [3]. On the other hand, the quick development of Chinese infrastructural construction needs more cementing materials. The production of traditional building materials consumes lots of natural resource such as clay and limestone and discharges at least 1 ton CO2 and other pollutants per ton clinker [4]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new types of cementing materials instead of clinker [5,6]."

Jan 1, 2012

By Paula Ana Paiva

The high economic value and unique technological properties of the platinum-group metals (PGMs), plus their growing scarcity in the Earth’s crust, justify the crucial importance of developing recycling practices for PGMs end-of-life materials. Examples of top devices relying on the use of PGMs are automotive and industrial catalysts, and electrical and electronics equipment. This article critically describes the most recent research on the use of solvent extraction to recover one PGM, palladium, from spent catalysts. Some groups focus on the development of schemes involving commercial extractants, while others prefer to design specific molecules to efficiently and selectively recover palladium from these particular complex leaching solutions. Examples of commercial extractants proposed for the former schemes are Alamine® 308, TBP and LIX® 84I; while on the other hand, sulfur-containing diamides, thioamides, thiocarbamates, and dithioethers have recently been developed. Ionic liquids have to be mentioned too.