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The purposes of defining the mining environment for underground mass mining and the uses of characterisation data are outlined. The requirements for data in the areas of geology, surface and groundwater hydrology, topography and environmental constraints and geotechnical studies are identified. Emphasis is then placed on the collection and interpretation of geotechnical data for establishing the in situ stress regime and for rock mass characterisation. Methods used for diamond drilling, core logging, borehole logging, data analysis and presentation, rock mass modelling and rock mass classification are outlined. Finally, recent and potential advances in the state-of-the-art are identified in areas such as geophysical methods, measurement while drilling, computerised data collection and analysis, rock mass modelling, in situ stress measurement data presentation and interpretation, and some applications of rock mass characterisation data.

Jan 1, 2000

By D S. Nicholson, T Marshall

Reserves of high-grade quartz gravel, lignite and timber suitable for the production of silicon metal and ferrosilicon on large scale occur within 40 miles of Bluff Harbour. Undeveloped hydroelectric power resources on the Clutha River are located within 50 miles of the most promising quartz gravel deposits while opencastable lignite, potentially suitable for electric power production, occurs in the same locality as the quartz gravels. A preliminary study of production economics indicates that the commercial feasibility of silicon/ferro-silicon production would depend mainly on the cost of electric power, total capital cost of plant, and the market value of the products. The proximity of Bluff Harbour is advantageous for the export of products.

Jan 1, 1971

By G Yeowart, P D. Munro

The Prominent Hill copper-gold concentrator of OZ Minerals Limited in South Australia was built in 2008 and commenced commercial production in early 2009. It has a design ore throughput of eight million tonnes per year (Mt/yr). While the flow sheet has many items in common with other plants treating ores from iron oxide-hosted copper-gold deposits, the Prominent Hill concentrator also has some unique features. Plant design has been based on a 'template' of the very successful Ernest Henry concentrator. Initial options considered for processing Prominent Hill copper-gold ore are briefly examined as well as potential complications arising from the presence of a considerable tonnage of 'gold-only' material present in the deposit. Metallurgical test work and the subsequent decisions leading to the selection of a conventional crushing, semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) and rougher flotation circuit is discussed. One particular difference with other plants treating this ore type is that metallurgical tests and mineralogical studies identified that rougher concentrate had to be reground to a P80 of 20 - 25 microns or finer for adequate liberation of fluorine-bearing minerals. Subsequent satisfactory separation of fluorine-rich gangue material from the valuable copper sulfides requires highly efficient cleaner flotation to make a commercial quality copper-gold concentrate. Xstrata Technology's IsaMillÖ and Jameson Cell technologies developed to meet similar taxing fine grinding and flotation duties for the treatment of the refractory zinc-lead-silver ores of the Carpentaria-Mount Isa Mineral Province were selected for regrinding and cleaner flotation. Plant design has features aiding ergonomics for ease of operation and maintenance not commonly seen in recent projects with large sulfide flotation concentrators.

Jan 1, 2009

By Fourney W. L, Dick R. D

A small-charge rapid excavation system employing a novel penetrating cone fracture initiation and propagation technique has been demonstrated to be capable of excavating the hardest of rocks at efficiencies (energy per unit volume of rock removed) four to ten times greater than attainable with conventional drill and blast. Significant enhancements to the concept developed during the research efforts include the use of propellant rather than explosive charges and a device for containing the charges and effectively sealing the shot-holes. The experimental results, including the excavation of several tons of hard rock in a research mine, have confirmed the novel breakage process and provided a data base for the design of a continuous hard rock mining machine based upon the concept. The small-charge excavation system would be attractive for civil construc-tion operations where sensitive structures, equipment and personnel would be in close proximity to the excavation face. The system would be attractive for selective mining operations where the ore rock could be fragment-ed and processed separately from the barren country rock. The barren rock could then be backfilled underground and eliminated from the traditional hauling and milling operations.

Jan 1, 1990

By Marshall T, Nicholson DS

Reserves of high-grade quartz gravel, lignite and timber suitable for the production of silicon metal and ferrosilicon on large scale occur within 40 miles of Bluff Harbour. Undeveloped hydroelectric power resources on the Clutha River are located within 50 miles of the most promising quartz gravel deposits while ooencastable lignite, potentially suitable for electric power production, occurs in the same locality as the quartz gravels. A preliminary study of production economics indicates that the commercial feasibility of silicon/ferro-silicon production would depend mainly on the cost of electric power, total capital cost of plant, and the market value of the products. The proximity of Bluff Harbour is advantageous for the export of products.

Jan 1, 1971

A generalised mathematical model for hydrocyclone classifiers was developed by the author (Nageswararao, 1978) using dimensionless groups which include phenomenological characteristics as independent variables. This model is incorporated in JKSimMet, the steady state mineral processing simulator developed by JKTech.Recently, when this model was rewritten (Lynch and Morrell, 1992), in terms of variables other than those used by the author, a few errors have crept in. For example, while the exponent of (Du/Dc) in the equation for d50e should be negative (-0.47), it was recorded as positive (0.47). Also, the exponent of (DoIDe) in the equation for pressure drop should be 0.67 and not 0.60. In the same equation, the exponent of Dc would turn out to be -0.10 and not 0.15. These are clearly attributable to typographic and rounding off errors, while transforming the original equations.More recently, Cilliers (pers comm) has done a comprehensive evaluation of the major semi-empirical models for hydrocyclones.He observed that the major difference between the cyclone model developed by the author and other models lies in the method of quantifying the effect of spigot diameter on d50e. He noted that while all other models predict an increase in d50e with a decrease in the spigot diameter, the model as cited by Lynch and Morrell (1992) predicts just the opposite. However, he conjectured correctly that the discrepancy could be due to a typographic error. As the model is still unpublished, it is felt that the original model equations should be recorded with the correct exponents, so that errors in predictions other than those due to the limitations of the model itself could be avoided. They are given hereunder.

Jan 1, 1995

By Leggate J

In the past many coal mining projects commenced without any consideration being given to eventual site rehabilitation. Now that site rehabilitation is assuming greater importance with changing community expectations, and standards are becoming less negotiable, it cannot be ignored in either the development of mine working plans or economic models. The "unspecified" rehabilitation measures associated with many existing projects will be the subject of debate for some time to come yet. It would be wise to plan for the future. Once an agreeed standard of rehabilitation is accepted, good management involves considering practices which will facilitate eventual rehabilitation at least cost. Without planning for rehabilitation, many mines have adopted practices which are likely to result in very expensive rehabilitation measures and impact significantly on the overall profitability of the ventures. With adequate planning, procedures can be developed which achieve the same short term goals without significantly effecting cash flow but with very significant impacts on the final rehabilitation cost. This paper looks at the disposal of tailings and overburden in the coal mining process. The industry has in the past had an obvious preference for the "perceived" cheaper procedures for waste management such as wet disposal of tailings and high dumping of overburden. There are alternatives. The paper discusses the principles which should be incorporated into tailings and overburden disposal systems and identifies viable alternatives.

Jan 1, 1991

By C Standing, R Lacourt Rodrigues, C Q

The value of iron ore depends on the grade of the contaminants. Scheduled iron, and the associated contaminants, provides mine planners with a measure of stockpile feed and blending requirements. Blending at the stockpiles is one approach to optimising iron grade, while minimising the variability of contaminant grades. These schedules are typically based on resource models incorporating geology and iron and contaminant grades. Resource models reflect best estimates of trends for each of the elements rather than the potential variability, which is critical for accurate short-term blending. Conditional simulation provides a tool to describe the likely variability of each element. Only recently has conditional simulation technology allowed the inherent correlation between elements to be incorporated into the process. This paper presents the stepwise co-simulation process used to simulate and describe multi-element variability for effective mine planning. A case study using the multi-element conditional simulation and the subsequent uncertainty in the schedule and stockpile planning is presented. This process supports proactive mine planning to minimise unexpected fluctuations in the final product.

Jan 1, 2005

By K Matsui, R N. Gupta, H Shimada

Roof falls and failures of powered supports were major threats at longwall face. Abnormal geological conditions were caused roof falls and shield damage. Therefore continuous monitoring and analysis of strata behaviour was imperative on real time for forecasting adverse behaviour. Novel PXI instrumentation system was successfully developed for continuous monitoring and analysis of supports pressure, leg closure and gate roads convergence. However, this paper briefly examines the novel gate roads convergence monitoring system with field applications.

Jan 1, 2003

By Woodcock J. T, Rummel P. H, Sparrow G. J, MacRae C. M

A rapid automated search method, developed for the location of native gold grains in polished sections with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), has been extended to locate platinum group elements (PGE), in particular platinum and palladium, and their minerals down to 1 ¦m in size. Problems associated with the search for PGE minerals are discussed and examples of PGE minerals located with the facility in drill core sections, crushed ores, and metallurgical test products are given.

Jan 1, 1991

The author presents various procedures for the choice of dri-ving systems for mining, including the method of indeterminate Lagrange factors and linear programming.The possible application of the points-awarding method is demonstrated.It allows for taking into account both surd and commensurable characteristics of a driving system for mining. Also, the method of economic efficiency factors is outlined.All these methods make possible the best choice of a driving system, from the as-pect of electric energy saving. Two examples are given.

Jan 1, 1985

By C Reed

Titaniferous magnetite deposits are a significant source of vanadium for use in high strength steel alloying and other chemical applications. The mineralogy of the deposits varies markedly and the ore characteristics strongly influence the process route selected and the metallurgical outcomes. Characterisation of the ores reveals the presence of magnetite, ilmenite and other minerals such as spinel hematite and goethite with variable degrees of weathering along with weathered products of host rock. The standard processing route is to crush, grind and magnetically recover a concentrate for salt roasting to produce a soluble vanadate. Ore beneficiation is practised to generate an iron based mineral concentrate containing much of the vanadium with low silica levels of two per cent. Typical processing problems encountered are fine liberation size, over grinding of the magnetite and variable response to magnetic separation resulting from the weathering profile. Beneficiation options are restricted, and generally focused on producing a combined iron and titanium rich concentrate containing vanadium due to the fact that ilmenite and magnetite and their products of weathering are magnetic and have similar specific gravities making their separation difficult. The ilmenite usually contains low levels of vanadium making its separation highly desirable from the iron mineralisation containing higher levels of vanadium. Salt roasting of vanadium ores followed by water leaching has been the standard processing route for many years. The cost of suitable sodium salts, availability of capital and increasing energy costs and energy availability are critical factors in determining the viability of aspiring vanadium producers. To date, only Windimurra has acquired full capital funding, secured energy and sodium salt supplies at suitable cost that enable the construction of the project. Low overall recoveries of vanadium to concentrate roasting at up to 1200¦C are critical cost issues. In this paper, factors influencing the recovery of vanadium are reviewed and emerging processing trends explored. The important features of the processing of titaniferous magnetites have been condensed from the literature, published works, company websites, our own work and personal communication.

Jan 1, 2008

Difficult ground conditions in the area planned for placement of vent rises to the surface at the Porgera Goldmine led engineers directing the project to chose blind shaft boring methods of shaft construction from the available alternatives. Zeni Drilling Pty Ltd was first contracted in 1988 to install a group of three closely-spaced, steel lined shafts. The success of these led to an order for a fourth hole in the same group followed by two more, less than a kilometre. away, under a separate contract in 1992. All of the shafts were completed on.schedule to within one day. The only significant difficulty arose during commencement of the last shaft when the strata collapsed trapping the drilling tools and jeopardising the stability of the surface collar pad. The situation was corrected by innovative lining techniques and the project went on to finish on schedule. This paper discusses the application of various technologies associated with the project including aspects of geotechnical input, drilling fluid chemistry, mining engineering and logistics.

Jan 1, 1993

By Hayward P. G

Complex ores, characterised by intimate intergrowths between minerals, have previously been treated by flotation with limited success. The most common problem has been that the liberation size is often finer than the lower size limit for selection flotation. A technique has been developed in which the problem is overcome by the use of a selective agglomeration procedure in which the values are coalesced with oil to a size suitable for flotation prior to introduction into the flotation machine. A complex lead ore was characterised by QEM*SEM mineralogy as having a mean galena liberation size of 15 ¦m. The best recovery of lead at 50 per cent Pb grade by standard flotation was 53 per cent. After application of the procedure, 86 per cent recovery was obtained after a single cleaner step. The oil functions as a bridging liquid in the presence of conventional collectors which render the mineral oleophillic.

Jan 1, 1991

This paper discusses design concepts in planning a large modern bulk terminal. The need is emphasised for a studied master plan, in-built materials handling flexibility and staged development. An integrated approach is advocated, combining functional purpose designed foundations and structures to serve their mechanical, electrical and environmental functions. Dry bulk and slurry handling are also compared in perspective.

Jan 1, 1983

By Frost M. T

Magnesium is the lightest metal used in structural applications but these are only a small part of magnesium usage, with the use in aluminium alloys consuming half the magnesium produced. Other applications include steel desulphurisation, nodular iron manufacture and metal reduction. Demand for magnesium is expected to increase towards the end of the decade because of a requirement to lighten the weight of automobiles. The current western world plant capacity and production rate is 250 000 tpa. The CIS and PRC also have production capacity but shipments from these countries have been limited in the last half of 1994. The price for magnesium has followed trends similar to aluminium with recent recovery from US$1500 per tonne in 1992 and 1993 to US$4000 per tonne in 1995. The major magnesium producers all use different production methods and the potential exists to establish a large-scale magnesium industry with operating and capital costs comparable to aluminium. The Australian Magnesium Research and Development Project has been established to develop a low cost method of production using the magnesite and infrastructure resources in Central Queensland.

Jan 1, 1995

By A G. L Pratt, G F. Dunstan, A Leonforte

The selection of the material sizing and mine dewatering systems are important elements in the development of a large-scale, high tonnage (greater than 4 Mt/a) underground hard rock mine. The sizing system will influence the size and type of the ore haulage system and therefore how the underground project is developed. With more underground developments considering or implementing caving methods of mining, the selection of the material sizing systems is also influenced by the caving fragmentation. Traditionally, crusher systems are used for material sizing in large hard rock mines, with the crusher installation and its ancillary equipment representing a substantial capital investment. Underground cave mining type operations generally express themselves with large surface subsidence areas, which can lead to large inflows of water from major rain events or purging underground aquifer systems. To minimise disruption to mine production, the dewatering system needs to be sized, with consideration to both storage and pumping capacities. The balance between storage and pumping capacity is assessed to provide the optimal economic solution with the appropriate risk measures. This paper outlines a process for the selection of material sizing and dewatering systems for large-scale caving operations. This process is illustrated with information drawn from NewcrestÆs Ridgeway Deeps Block Cave project. The Ridgeway Deeps Block Cave is located directly beneath the existing Ridgeway Sublevel Cave Mine.

Jan 1, 2008

By Sen G

An amount of explosives, whether it be cylindrical, spherical, etc in configuration, with a hollow cavity in one face or end is known as a hollow or shaped charge. When this charge is initiated, a focussing of explosive energy will occur within this cavity. This focussing, or concentration of detonation products creates an intense localised force greater than just the simple detonation of a conventional explosive, (without a hollow cavity). If this hollow cavity explosive is directed against a target material this concentrated force is capable of creating a deeper penetration than the same amount of explosive without the hollow cavity. If a metallic liner material is used in the hollow cavity, upon detonation of the explosive this liner will form into a high velocity penetrating jet. Depending on the explosive type and the liner material's configuration the jet tip can travel up to 10 km/s. Linear shaped charges were developed using the abovementioned shaped charge concept but instead of being formed about an axis, they are elongated and constructed along the principal axis. Therefore instead of creating a narrow circular penetration jet, it forms a thicker planar cutting jet ideal for linear cutting purposes. Using Linear Shaped Charges (LSC) for pre-splitting is expected to result in more accurate directional fracture propagation, while minimising lateral micro fractures in the surrounding rock mass which is required to remain undamaged.

Jan 1, 1995

Results from current NERDDC funded research into the geotechnology of highwall trench mining methods have clear implications for mine planners in the areas of blast design, trench shape, location of the surcharge spoil and remnant coal pillar design.Adoption of successful smooth wall blasting techniques not only removes safety hazards from the trench face, but limits development of bedding partings at the seam contacts that interrupt the smooth transition of stress across the coal seam.

Jan 1, 1992

By Melcher G

The challenge to the zinc industry is shifting from maximum metal recoveries to the environmentally safe processing of the ore concentrates. The main source of solid residues from hydrometallurgical zinc processing is the iron content of the concentrates. Unfortunately iron precipitates from leach liquors contain various compounds which cause them to be considered as environmentally unsafe, unless they have been cleaned in subsequent process steps. This calls for separating the iron from hydrometallurgical processing as early as possible. For this purpose a process has been designed to eliminate the iron directly after neutral leaching the calcine. This is being done by direct smelting the neutral leach residue with a cyclone/top blowing unit. The zinc is recovered from the neutral leach residue as a metal oxide to be recycled to the zinc process. The iron is converted to a slag, which is resistant to atmospheric attack. Key data of the integrated hydro-/pyrometallurgical process are presented as derived from pilot plant tests by cyclone smelting and top blowing the slag.

Jan 1, 1993